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| author | Robby Workman <rworkman@slackware.com> | 2010-01-15 20:41:45 -0600 |
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| committer | Robby Workman <rworkman@slackware.com> | 2010-01-15 20:41:45 -0600 |
| commit | 9f3ac29bef76c32982eacc992782aa1805f9e315 (patch) | |
| tree | dbd9ed6df04cef12792a23ffc0db244891a78723 | |
| parent | 2da7eca32251671b46cd73dde3513e190e10d5b7 (diff) | |
| download | slackbook-9f3ac29bef76c32982eacc992782aa1805f9e315.tar.xz | |
Remove book.html from the repo.
I don't see a good reason to track the autogenerated file in
the repo. If I'm wrong, we'll revert this commit -- it only
touches that one file.
| -rw-r--r-- | book.html | 2560 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2560 deletions
diff --git a/book.html b/book.html deleted file mode 100644 index 2b91276..0000000 --- a/book.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2560 +0,0 @@ -<html><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"><title>The Slack Book</title><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.75.1"></head><body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF"><div class="book" title="The Slack Book"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="id54440"></a>The Slack Book</h1></div></div><hr></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="preface"><a href="#id335177">Foreward</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id337010">Intended Audience</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id316534">Why A New Slackware Book?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330458">Conventions Used in this Book</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id335728">Acknowledgements</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id317008">1. Introduction to Slackware</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id311524">Why Use Slackware?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id311677">Differences with other Linux Distributions</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341400">Licensing</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id297229">2. Installation</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352319">Booting the Installer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330240">Partitioning</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326672">The <span class="application">setup</span> Program</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326687">Help</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326694">Keymap</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326702">Addswap</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326709">Target</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326717">Source</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326724">Select</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326732">Install</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326739">Configure</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id297222">3. Booting</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id357891"><span class="application">mkinitrd</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326605">LILO</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id288954">4. Basic Shell Commands</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326497">System Documentation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330395">Dealing with Files and Directories</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330401"><span class="application">Listing Files and Directory Contents</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351195">Moving Around the Filesystem</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354028">File and Directory Creation and Deletion</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354344">Reading Documents</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354528">Linking</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id336592">5. The Bourne Again Shell</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id282479">What Is A Shell?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314358">Environment Variables</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id313824">Wildcards</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id335881">Tab Completion</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354670">Input and Output Redirection</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354937">Terminals</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355019">Customization</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id325945">6. The X Window System</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id358884">What Is (And Isn't) X</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id320754">Configuring the X Server</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314642">Choosing a Window Manager</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351028">Setting Up A Graphical Login</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id292994">7. Printing</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id337782">Choosing A Printer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id357050">Setting Up a Printer in CUPS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id322037">Commandline Printing Tools</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id337784">8. Users and Groups</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359209">What Are Users and Groups?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341153">Managing Users and Groups</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359270">Other User and Group Tools</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id321249">Managing Users and Groups Manually</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id290832">9. Filesystem Permissions</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id312644">Permissions Overview</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id336783"><span class="application">chmod</span>, -<span class="application">chown</span>, and -<span class="application">chgrp</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id342316">SUID, SGID, and the "Sticky" Bit</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id283108">10. Working with Filesystems</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id325517">The Filesystem Hierarchy</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318597">Local Filesystem Types</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318610">ext2</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318624">ext3</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318642">reiserfs</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318656">XFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318671">JFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318685">iso9660</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318711">vfat</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355976">swap</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355992">Using <span class="application">mount</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360747">Network Filesystems</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360758">NFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360899">SMB</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id282063">11. <span class="application">vi</span></a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352102">What is <span class="application">vi</span>?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314220">The Different Modes of <span class="application">vi</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317601">Opening, Saving, and Quitting</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id320876">Moving Around</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id342976">Editing A Document</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id343009"><span class="application">vi</span> Cheat Sheet</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id342041">12. Emacs</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317667">No Idea</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id289613">13. Networking</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id328201"><span class="application">netconfig</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id310624">Manual Configuration</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id319849">Automatic Configuration with rc.inet1.conf</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id329344">14. Wireless Networking</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326142"><span class="application">iwconfig</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359178">Wired Equivilant Protection (or Lack Thereof)</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id334833">WPA</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id334290">rc.inet1.conf revisited</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id284408">15. Basic Networking Commands</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id348624">Network Diagnostic Tools</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id333340">Web Browsers</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351638">FTP Clients</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317884">NNTP Clients</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341101">Remote Access</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id320396">16. Package Management</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id358328"><span class="application">pkgtool</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352958">Installing, Removing, and Upgrading Packages</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341343"><span class="application">pkgtool</span></a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id292742">17. Keeping Track of Updates</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314047">The -stable Branch</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id324804">Upgrading Slackware Versions</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#id328461">18. The Linux Kernel</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id322300">What Does the Kernel Do?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id325022">Working with Modules</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id353213">Compiling A Kernel and Why to do So</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></div><div class="list-of-tables"><p><b>List of Tables</b></p><dl><dt>4.1. <a href="#id333534">Man Page Sections</a></dt><dt>9.1. <a href="#id337693">Permissions of /bin/ls</a></dt><dt>9.2. <a href="#id330724">Octal Permissions</a></dt><dt>9.3. <a href="#id342090">Alphabetic Permissions</a></dt><dt>9.4. <a href="#id342158">Alphabetic Users and Groups</a></dt><dt>9.5. <a href="#id342457">SUID, SGID, and "Sticky" Permissions</a></dt><dt>10.1. <a href="#id336627">Filesystem Layout</a></dt><dt>10.2. <a href="#id356105">Common mount options</a></dt><dt>11.1. <a href="#id348996">vi cursor movement</a></dt><dt>11.2. <a href="#id343030">vi Cheat Sheet</a></dt></dl></div><div class="preface" title="Foreward"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id335177"></a>Foreward</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id337010">Intended Audience</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id316534">Why A New Slackware Book?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330458">Conventions Used in this Book</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id335728">Acknowledgements</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="Intended Audience"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id337010"></a>Intended Audience</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Why A New Slackware Book?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id316534"></a>Why A New Slackware Book?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Conventions Used in this Book"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id330458"></a>Conventions Used in this Book</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Acknowledgements"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id335728"></a>Acknowledgements</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 1. Introduction to Slackware"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id317008"></a>Chapter 1. Introduction to Slackware</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id311524">Why Use Slackware?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id311677">Differences with other Linux Distributions</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341400">Licensing</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="Why Use Slackware?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id311524"></a>Why Use Slackware?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Slackware has a long tradition of excellence. Started in 1992 and -first released in 1993, Slackware is the oldest surviving commercial -Linux distribution. Slackware's focus on making a clean, simple Linux -distribution that is as UNIX-like as possible makes it a natural choice -for those people who really want to learn about Linux and other -UNIX-like operating systems. Slackware's simplicity makes it ideal for -those users who want to create their own custom systems. And of course, -Slackware is great in its own right as a desktop, workstation, or server. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Differences with other Linux Distributions"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id311677"></a>Differences with other Linux Distributions</h2></div></div></div><p> -There are a great number of differences between Slackware and other -main-stream distributions such as Red Hat, Debian, and Ubuntu. Perhaps -the greatest difference is the lack of "hand-holding" that Slackware -will do for the administrator. Many of these other distributions ship -with graphical configuration tools for all manner of services. In many -cases these configuration tools are the preferred method of setting up -applications on these systems and will over-write any changes you make -to the config files via other means. These tools often make it easy -(or at least possible) for a rookie with no in-depth understanding of -his system to setup basic services; however, they also make it -difficult to do anything too out of the ordinary. In contrast, -Slackware expects you, the system administrator, to do these tasks on -your own. Slackware provides no general purpose setup tools beyond -those included with the source code published by up-stream developers. -This means there is often a somewhat steeper learning curve associated -with Slackware, even for those users familiar with other Linux -distributions, but also makes it much easier to do whatever you want -with your operating system. -</p><p> -Also, you may hear users of other distributions say that Slackware has -no package management system. This is completely and obviously false. -Slackware has always had package management (see Chapter 16 for more -information). What it does not have is automatic dependency -resolution. Rather, Slackware's package tools trade dependency -management for simplicity, ease-of-use, and reliability. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Licensing"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id341400"></a>Licensing</h2></div></div></div><p> -Each piece of Slackware (indeed of all Linux distributions) is -developed by different people or teams of people, and each group has -their own ideas about what it means to be "free". Because of this -there are literally dozens and dozens of different licenses granting -you different permissions regarding their use or distribution. -</p><p> -Perhaps the most popular license in use within the Free Software -community is the GNU General Public License. -The GPL was created by the Free Software -Foundation which actively works to create and distribute software that -contains the basic freedoms they fill are basic rights. Indeed, this -is the very group that coined the term "Free Software". The GPL -imposes no restrictions on the use of software. In fact, you don't -even have to accept the terms of the license in order to use the -software, but you are not allowed to distribute the software or your -changes to it without abiding by the terms of the license agreement. A -great many software projects shipped with Slackware from the Linux -kernel itself to the Samba project are released under the terms of the -GPL. -</p><p> -Another very common license is the BSD license, which is arguably "more -free" than the GPL, but imposes no restrictions on derivative works. -The BSD license simply requires that the copyright remain intact, along -with a simple disclaimer. Many of the utilities specific to Slackware -are licensed with a BSD-style license. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 2. Installation"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id297229"></a>Chapter 2. Installation</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352319">Booting the Installer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330240">Partitioning</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326672">The <span class="application">setup</span> Program</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326687">Help</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326694">Keymap</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326702">Addswap</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326709">Target</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326717">Source</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326724">Select</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326732">Install</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326739">Configure</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></div><p> -Slackware's installation is a bit more simplistic than many other Linux -distributions use, and is very reminiscent of installing one of the -varieties of BSD operating systems. If you're familiar with those, you -should feel right at home. If you've never installed Slackware or used -a distribution that makes use of a non-graphical installer, you may -feel a bit overwhelmed. Don't panic. The installation is very easy -once you understand it, and works on just about any x86 platform. -</p><p> -The latest versions of Slackware Linux are distributed on DVD or CD -media, but Slackware can be installed in a variety of other ways. This -book will only focus on the most common way: installing via optical -media. In order to install Slackware, you'll need at least an Intel -486 or equivilant CPU, but we recommend you obtain a 586 or better CPU -if at all possible. Slackware can be pared down to run on as little as -32 MB of RAM (or even less), but with the size of the 2.6 kernel and -user-space applications, you will find yourself having a much easier -time if you have a minimum of 64 MB of RAM. If you wish to use -anything older than these, you might want to obtain an older copy of -Slackware which will perform better with fewer CPU Megahertz and less -RAM. -</p><div class="section" title="Booting the Installer"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id352319"></a>Booting the Installer</h2></div></div></div><p> -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -</p></div><div class="section" title="Partitioning"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id330240"></a>Partitioning</h2></div></div></div><p> -Unlike many other Linux distributions, Slackware does not make use of a -graphical disk partitioning tool in its installer. Rather, Slackware -makes use of <span class="application">fdisk</span>(8) and -<span class="application">cfdisk</span>(8), both console tools. -<span class="application">cfdisk</span> is a curses-based partitioning tool -while <span class="application">fdisk</span> is not. Whichever you choose to -use should only rarely matter. In this book, we'll only discuss -<span class="application">fdisk</span>. -</p><p> -In order to partition your hard drive, you'll first need to know how to -identify it. In Linux, all hardware is identified by a special file -called a device file. These are all (typically) located in the -<code class="filename">/dev</code> directory. If your hard drive is IDE, you -will most likely find it as <code class="filename">/dev/hda</code>; however, -many hard drives today including SATA disks are identified as SCSI -devices by the kernel. If you don't know what your hard drive is -identified in Linux as, <span class="application">fdisk</span> can help you -out. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">root@slackware:/# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>fdisk -l</code></strong> - -Disk /dev/sda: 72.7 GB, 72725037056 bytes -255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 8841 cylinders -Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes -</pre><p> -Here, you can see that my system has a hard drive located at -<code class="filename">/dev/sda</code> that is 72.7 GB in size. You can also -see some additional info about this hard drive. (In my case, this is -actually three SCSI hard drives on a hardware RAID controller that -makes them appear as a single drive.) The [-l] argument to -<span class="application">fdisk</span> tells it to display the hard drives -and all the partitions it finds on those drives, but won't make any -changes to the disks. In order to actually partition our drives, we'll -have to tell <span class="application">fdisk</span> what drive to operate on. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">root@slackware:/# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>fdisk /dev/sda</code></strong> - -The number of cylinders for this disk is set to 8841. -There is nothing wrong with that, but this is larger than 1024, -and could in certain setups cause problems with: -1) software that runs at boot time (e.g., old versions of LILO) -2) booting and partitioning software from other OSs - (e.g., DOS FDISK, OS/2 FDISK) - -Command (m for help): -</pre><p> -Now we've told fdisk what disk we wish to partition and it has dropped -us into command mode after printing an annoying warning message. The -1024 cylinder limit has not been a problem for some time, and -Slackware's boot loader will have no trouble booting disks larger than -this. Typing [m] and hitting ENTER will print out a helpful -message telling you what to do with <span class="application">fdisk</span>. -</p><pre class="screen">Command (m for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>m</code></strong> - -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! -FILL THIS IN! FILL THIS IN! - -</pre><p> -Now that we know what commands will do what, it's time to begin to -partition our drive. At a minimum, you will need a single -<code class="filename">/</code> partition and should create a swap partition. -You might also want to make a seperate <code class="filename">/home</code> -partition for storing user files (this will make it easier to upgrade -later, or install a different Linux operating system by keeping all of -your users' files on a seperate partition). So, let's go ahead and -make three partitions. The command to create a new partition is - [n] (which you would have noticed if you read the help). -</p><pre class="screen">Command: (me for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>n</code></strong> -Command action - e extended - p primary partition (1-4) -<strong class="userinput"><code>p</code></strong> -Partition number (1-4): <strong class="userinput"><code>1</code></strong> -First cylinder (1-8841, default 1): <strong class="userinput"><code>1</code></strong> -Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1-8841, default 8841): <strong class="userinput"><code>+8G</code></strong> - -Command (m for help): n -Command action - e extended - p primary partition (1-4) -<strong class="userinput"><code>p</code></strong> -Partition number (1-4): <strong class="userinput"><code>2</code></strong> -First cylinder (975-8841, default 975): <strong class="userinput"><code>975</code></strong> -Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (975-8841, default 8841): <strong class="userinput"><code>+1G</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Here we have created two partitions. The first is 8GB in size and the -second is only 1GB. We can view our existing partitions with the -[p] command. -</p><pre class="screen"> Command (m for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>p</code></strong> - -Disk /dev/sda: 72.7 GB, 72725037056 bytes -255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 8841 cylinders -Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes - - Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System -/dev/sda1 1 974 7823623+ 83 Linux -/dev/sda2 975 1097 987997+ 83 Linux - -</pre><p> -Both of these partitions are of type "83" which is the standard Linux -filesystem. We will need to change <code class="filename">/dev/sda2</code> to -type "82" in order to make this a swap partition. We will do this with -the [t] command. -</p><pre class="screen">Command (m for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>t</code></strong> -Partition number (1-4): <strong class="userinput"><code>2</code></strong> -Hex code (type L to list codes): <strong class="userinput"><code>82</code></strong> - -Command (me for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>p</code></strong> - -Disk /dev/sda: 72.7 GB, 72725037056 bytes -255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 8841 cylinders -Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes - - Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System -/dev/sda1 1 974 7823623+ 83 Linux -/dev/sda2 975 1097 987997+ 82 Linux swap - -</pre><p>The swap partition is a special partition that is used for -virtual memory by the Linux kernel. If for some reason you run out of -RAM, the kernel will move the contents of some of the RAM to swap in -order to prevent a crash. The size of your swap partition is up to -you. A great many people have participated have participated in a -great many flamewars on the size of swap partitions, but a good rule of -thumb is to make your swap partition about twice the size of your -system's RAM. Since my machine has only 512MB of RAM, I decided to -make my swap partition 1GB. You may wish to experiment with your swap -partition's size and see what works best for you, but generally there -is no harm in having "too much" swap. -</p><p> -At this point we can stop, write these changes to the disk, and -continue on, but I'm going to go ahead and make a third partition which -will be mounted at <code class="filename">/home</code>. -</p><pre class="screen">Command: (me for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>n</code></strong> -Command action - e extended - p primary partition (1-4) -<strong class="userinput"><code>p</code></strong> -Partition number (1-4): <strong class="userinput"><code>3</code></strong> -First cylinder (1098-8841, default 1098): <strong class="userinput"><code>1098</code></strong> -Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1098-8841, default 8841): <strong class="userinput"><code>8841</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Now it's time to finish up and write these changes to disk. -</p><pre class="screen">Command: (me for help): <strong class="userinput"><code>w</code></strong> -The partition table has been altered! - -Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table. -Synching disks. -<code class="prompt">root@slackware:/# </code> -</pre><p> -At this point, we are through partitioning our disks and are ready to -begin the <span class="application">setup</span> program. However, if you -have created any extended partitions, you may wish to reboot once to -ensure that they are properly read by the kernel. -</p></div><div class="section" title="The setup Program"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id326672"></a>The <span class="application">setup</span> Program</h2></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Help"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326687"></a>Help</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Keymap"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326694"></a>Keymap</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Addswap"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326702"></a>Addswap</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Target"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326709"></a>Target</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Source"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326717"></a>Source</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Select"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326724"></a>Select</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Install"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326732"></a>Install</h3></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Configure"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id326739"></a>Configure</h3></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 3. Booting"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id297222"></a>Chapter 3. Booting</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id357891"><span class="application">mkinitrd</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326605">LILO</a></span></dt></dl></div><p> -Ok, now that you've gotten Slackware installed on your system, you -should learn exactly what controls the boot sequence of your machine, -and how to fix it should you manage to break it somehow. Use Linux long -enough, and sooner or later you will make a mistake that breaks your -bootloader. Fortunately, this doesn't require a re-install to fix. Unlike -many other operating systems that hide the underlying details of how they -work, Linux (and in particular, Slackware) gives you full control over -the boot process. Simply by editing a configuration file or two and -re-running the boot-loader installer, you can quickly and easily change -(or break) your system. Slackware even makes it easy to dual-boot -between multiple operating systems such as other Linux distributions or -Microsoft Windows. -</p><div class="section" title="mkinitrd"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id357891"></a><span class="application">mkinitrd</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Before we go any further, a quick discussion on the Linux kernel is -warranted. Slackware Linux includes several different kernels. While -they are all compiled from the same source code, and hence are the -"same", they are not identical. Depending on your architecture and -Slackware version, the installer may have loaded your system with -several kernels. There are kernels for single-processor -systems and kernels for multi-processor systems. In the old days, there -were tons of kernels for installing on different kinds of hard drive -controllers. More importantly for our discussion, there are "huge" -kernels and "generic" kernels. -</p><p> -If you look inside your <code class="filename">/boot</code> directory, you'll -see the various kernels installed on your system. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /boot/vmlinuz*</code></strong> -/boot/vmlinuz-huge-2.6.29.4 /boot/vmlinuz-generic-2.6.29.4 -</pre><p> -Here you can see that I have two kernels installed, -<code class="filename">vmlinuz-huge-2.6.29.4</code> and -<code class="filename">vmlinuz-generic-2.6.29.4</code>. Each Slackware release -includes different kernel versions and sometimes even slightly -different names, so don't be alarmed if what you see doesn't exactly -match what I have listed here. -</p><p> -Huge kernels are exactly what you might think; they're huge. These -kernels are built to support nearly every conceivable computer -Slackware is supported on. They most certainly contain support for -hardware your machine does not, and never will, have. These are -included for several reasons, but the most important perhaps is in use -by the installer. These are the kernels the Slackware installation -disks run. If you chose to let the installer configure your bootloader -for you, it chooses to use these kernels due to the incredible variety -of hardware they support. By contrast, the generic kernels support very -little hardware without the use of external modules. If you want to use -one of the generic kernels, you'll need to make use of something called -an initrd, and the tool to make them, -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span>(8). -</p><p> -So why should you use a generic kernel? Currently the Slackware -development team recommends use of a generic kernel for a variety of -reasons. Perhaps the most obvious is size. The huge kernels are -currently about twice the size of the generic kernels before they are -uncompressed and loaded into memory. If you are running an older -machine, or one with some small ammount of RAM, you will appreciate the -savings the generic kernels offer you. Other reasons are somewhat more -difficult to quantify. Conflicts between drivers included in the huge -kernels do appear from time-to-time, and generally speaking, the huge -kernels do not perform as well as the generic ones. Also, by using the -generic kernels, special arguments can be passed to hardware drivers -seperately, rather than requiring these options be passed on the kernel -command line. Some of the tools included with Slackware work better if -your kernel uses some drivers as modules rather than "hard-coding" them -into the kernel. If you're having trouble understanding this, don't be -alarmed, just think "huge kernel: good, generic kernel: better". -</p><p> -Unfortunately, using the generic kernels isn't as straight-forward as -using the huge kernels. In order for the generic kernel to boot your -system, you must also usually include a few basic modules in an -initird. Modules are pieces of compiled kernel code that can be -inserted or removed from a running kernel. This makes the system -somewhat more flexible at the cost of a tiny bit of added complexity. -You might find it easier to think of modules as device drivers, at -least for this section. Typically you will need to add the module for -whatever filesystem you chose to use for your root partition during the -installer. If your root partition is located on a SCSI disk or RAID -controller, you'll need to load those modules as well. Finally, if -you're using software RAID, disk encryption, or LVM, you'll also need -to create an initrd whether you're using the generic kernel or not. -</p><p> -initrds are compressed <span class="application">cpio</span>(1) archives, so -creating them isn't very straightforward. Fortunately for you, -Slackware includes a tool that makes this very easy, -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span>. A full discussion of -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span> is a bit beyond the scope of this -book, but we'll show you all the highlights. For a more complete -explanation, check the manpage or run -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span> with the [--help] -argument. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mkinitrd --help</code></strong> -mkinitrd creates an initial ramdisk (actually an initramfs cpio+gzip -archive) used to load kernel modules that are needed to mount the -root filesystem, or other modules that might be needed before the -root filesystem is available. Other binaries may be added to the -initrd, and the script is easy to modify. Be creative. :-) -.... many more lines deleted .... -</pre><p> -When using <span class="application">mkinitrd</span>, you'll need to know a -few items of information: your root partition, your root filesystem, -any hard disk controllers you're using, and whether or not you're using -LVM, software RAID, or disk encryption. Unless you're using some kind -of SCSI controller (and have your root partition loaded on the SCSI -controller), you should only need to know your root filesystem and -partition type. Assuming you've booted into your Slackware installation -using the huge kernel, you can easily find this information with the -<span class="application">mount</span> command. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount</code></strong> -/dev/sda1 on / type ext4 (rw,barrier=1,data=ordered) -proc on /proc type proc (rw) -sysfs on /sys type sysfs (rw) -usbfs on /proc/bus/usb type usbfs (rw) -/dev/sda2 on /home type jfs (rw) -tmpfs on /dev/shm type tmpfs (rw) -</pre><p> -In the example provided, you can see that the root partition is located -on <code class="filename">/dev/sda1</code> and is an ext4 type partition. If we -want to create an initrd for this system, we simply need to tell this -information to <span class="application">mkinird</span>. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mkinitrd -f ext4 -r /dev/sda1</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Note that in most cases, <span class="application">mkinitrd</span> is smart -enough to determine this information on its own, but it never hurts to -specify it manually. Now that we've created out initrd, we simply need -to tell LILO where to find it. We'll focus on that in the next section. -</p><p> -Looking up all those different options for -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span> or worse, memorizing them, can be a -real pain though, especially if you try out different kernels -consistently. This became tedious for the Slackware development team, -so they came up with a simple configuration file, -<code class="filename">mkinitrd.conf</code>(5). You can find a sample file that -can be easily customized for your system under the -<code class="filename">/etc</code> directory. Here's mine. -</p><pre class="screen"># mkinitrd.conf.sample -# See "man mkinitrd.conf" for details on the syntax of this file -# -SOURCE_TREE="/boot/initrd-tree" -CLEAR_TREE="0" -OUTPUT_IMAGE="/boot/initrd.gz" -KERNEL_VERSION="$(uname -r)" -#KEYMAP="us" -MODULE_LIST="ext3:ext4:jfs" -#LUKSDEV="/dev/hda1" -ROOTDEV="/dev/raven/64root" -ROOTFS="ext4" -#RESUMEDEV="/dev/hda2" -#RAID="0" -LVM="1" -#WAIT="1" -</pre><p> -For a complete description of each of these lines and what they do, -you'll need to consulte the man page for -<code class="filename">mkinitrd.conf</code>. Once each of these is setup, you -need only run <span class="application">mkinitrd</span> with the - [-F] argument. A proper initrd file will be constructed and -installed for you, without you having to remember all those obscure -arguments. -</p></div><div class="section" title="LILO"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id326605"></a>LILO</h2></div></div></div><p> -LILO is the Linux Loader, and currently the default boot loader -installed with Slackware Linux. If you've used other Linux -distributions before, you may be more familiar with GRUB. If you prefer -to use it, you can easily find it in the <code class="filename">extra/</code> -directory on one of your Slackware CDs. Since LILO is the default -Slackware bootloader however, we'll focus exclusively on it. -</p><p> -Configuring LILO can be a little daunting for new users, so Slackware -comes with a special setup tool, <span class="application">liloconfig</span>. -Normally, <span class="application">liloconfig</span> is first run by the -installer, but you can run it at anytime from a terminal. -</p><p> -FILL THIS IN!!!! Picture of liloconfig -</p><p> -<span class="application">liloconfig</span> has two modes of operation: -simple and expert. The simple mode tries to automatically configure -lilo for you. If Slackware is the only operating system installed on -your computer, the simple mode will almost always do the right thing -quickly and easily. It is also very good at detecting Windows -installations and adding them to the <code class="filename">lilo.conf</code> -file so that you can choose which operating system to boot when you -turn your computer on. -</p><p> -In order to use expert mode, you'll need to know Slackware's root -partition. You can also setup other linux operating systems if you know -their root partitions, but this may not work as well as you'd expect. -<span class="application">liloconfig</span> will try to boot each linux -operating system with Slackware's kernel, and this is probably not what -you want. Fortunately, setting up Windows partitions in expert mode is -trivial. One hint when using expert mode. You should almost always -install LILO to the Master Boot Record (MBR). Once upon a time, it was -recommended to install the boot loader onto the root partition and set -that partition as bootable. Today, LILO has matured greatly and is safe -to install on the MBR. In fact, you will encounter fewer problems if -you do so. -</p><p> -<span class="application">liloconfig</span> is a great way to quickly setup -your boot loader, but if you really need to know what's going on you'll -need to look at LILO's configuration file, -<code class="filename">lilo.conf</code>(5) under the <code class="filename">/etc</code> -directory. The <code class="filename">lilo.conf</code> file is seperated into -several sections. At the top you'll find a global section where you -specify things like where to install LILO (generally the MBR), any -special images or screens to show on boot, and the timeout after which -LILO will boot the default operating system. Here's what the global -section of my lilo.conf file looks like in part. -</p><pre class="screen"># LILO configuration file - -boot = /dev/sda - bitmap = /boot/slack.bmp - bmp-colors = 255,0,255,0,255,0 - bmp-table = 60,6,1,16 - bmp-timer = 65,27,0,255 - -append=" vt.default_utf8=0" -prompt -timeout = 50 - -# VESA framebuffer console @ 1024x768x256 -vga = 773 -.... many more lines ommitted .... -</pre><p> -For a complete listing of all the possible LILO options, you should -consult the man page for <code class="filename">lilo.conf</code>. In brief, -we'll discuss the most common in this document. -</p><p> -The first thing that should draw your attention is the boot line. This -determines where the bootloader is installed. In order to install the -the MBR of your hard drive, you simply list the hard drive's device -entry on this line. In my case, I'm using a SATA hard drive that shows -up as SCSI device <code class="filename">/dev/sda</code>. If you're using an IDE -drive, you will probably have to use <code class="filename">/dev/hda</code>. In -order to install to the boot block of a partition, you'll have to list -the partition's device entry. For example, if you are installing to the -first partition on the only SATA hard drive in your computer, you would -probably use <code class="filename">/dev/sda1</code>. -</p><p> -The prompt option simply tells LILO to ask (prompt) you for which -operating system to boot. Operating systems are each listed in their -own section deeper in the file. We'll get to them in a minute. The -timeout option tells LILO how long to wait (in tenths of seconds) -before booting the default OS. In my case, this is 5 seconds. Some -systems seem to take a very long time to display the boot screen, so -you may need to use a larger timeout value than I have set. This is in -part why the simple LILO installation method utilizes a very long -timeout (somewhere around 2 whole minutes). The append line in my case -was setup by <span class="application">liloconfig</span>. You may (and -probably should) see something similar when looking at your own -<code class="filename">lilo.conf</code>. I won't go into the details of why this -line is needed, so you're just going to have to trust me that things -work better if it is present. :^) -</p><p> -Now that we've looked into the global section, let's take a look at the -operating systems section. Each linux operating system section begins -with an "image" line. Microsoft Windows operating systems are specified -with an "other" line. Let's take a look at a sample -<code class="filename">lilo.conf</code> that boots both Slackware and Microsoft -Windows. -</p><pre class="screen"># LILO configuration file -... global section ommitted .... -# Linux bootable partition config begins -image = /boot/vmlinuz-generic-2.6.29.4 - root = /dev/raven/64root - initrd = /boot/initrd.gz - label = Slackware64 - read-only -# Linux bootable partition config ends -# Windows bootable partition config begins -other = /dev/sda3 - label = Windows - table = /dev/sda -# Windows bootable partition config ends -</pre><p> -For Linux operating systems like Slackware, the image line specifies -which kernel to boot. In this case, we're booting -<code class="filename">/boot/vmlinuz-generic-2.6.29.4</code>. The remaining -sections are pretty self-explainatory. The tell LILO where to find the -root filesystem, what initrd (if any) to use, and to initially mount -the root filesystem read-only. That initrd line is very important for -anyone running a generic kernel, or using LVM or software RAID. It -tells LILO (and the kernel) where to find the initrd you created using -<span class="application">mkinitrd</span>. -</p><p> -Once you've gotten your <code class="filename">lilo.conf</code> setup for your -machine, simply run <span class="application">lilo</span>(8) to install it. -Unlike GRUB and other bootloaders, LILO requires you re-run -<span class="application">lilo</span> anytime you make changes to its -configuration file in order for those changes to be installed. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>lilo</code></strong> -Warning: LBA32 addressing assumed -Warning: '/proc/partitions' does not match '/dev' directory structure. - Name change: '/dev/dm-0' -> '/dev/raven/swap' -Warning: Name change: '/dev/dm-1' -> '/dev/raven/root' -Warning: Name change: '/dev/dm-2' -> '/dev/raven/home' -Warning: Name change: '/dev/dm-3' -> '/dev/raven/src' -Warning: Name change: '/dev/dm-4' -> '/dev/raven/64root' -Added Slackware * -Added Backup -6 warnings were issued. -</pre><p> -Don't be scared by many of the warnings you may see when running -<span class="application">lilo</span>. In my case, most of these warnings are -issued by the use of LVM. Unless you see a fatal error, things should -be just fine. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 4. Basic Shell Commands"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id288954"></a>Chapter 4. Basic Shell Commands</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326497">System Documentation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330395">Dealing with Files and Directories</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id330401"><span class="application">Listing Files and Directory Contents</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351195">Moving Around the Filesystem</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354028">File and Directory Creation and Deletion</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354344">Reading Documents</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354528">Linking</a></span></dt></dl></div><p> -So you've installed Slackware and you're staring at a terminal prompt, -what now? Now would be a good time to learn about the basic command -line tools. And since you're staring at a blinking curser, you -probably need a little assistance in knowing how to get around, and -that is what this chapter is all about. -</p><div class="section" title="System Documentation"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id326497"></a>System Documentation</h2></div></div></div><p> -Your Slackware Linux system comes with lots of built-in documentation -for nearly every installed application. Perhaps the most common method -of reading system documentation is by using the -<span class="application">man</span>(1). <span class="application">man</span> -(short for manual) will bring up the included man-page for any -application, system call, configuration file, or library you tell it -too. For example, <strong class="userinput"><code>man man</code></strong> will bring up the -man-page for <span class="application">man</span> itself. -</p><p> -Unfortunately, you may not always know what application you need to use -for the task at hand. Thankfully, <span class="application">man</span> has -built-in search abilities. Using the [-k] switch -will cause <span class="application">man</span> to search for every man-page -that matches your search terms. -</p><p> -The man-pages are organized into groups or sections by their content -type. For example, section 1 is for user applications. -<span class="application">man</span> will search each section in order and -display the first match it finds. Sometimes you will find that a -man-page exists in more than one section for a given entry. In that -case, you will need to specify the exact section to look in. In this -book, all applications and a number of other things will have a number -on their right-hand side in parenthesis. This number is the man page -section where you will find information on that tool. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>man -k printf</code></strong> -printf (1) - format and print data -printf (3) - formatted output conversion -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>man 3 printf</code></strong> -</pre><div class="table"><a name="id333534"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 4.1. Man Page Sections</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Man Page Sections" border="0"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Section</th><th align="right">Contents</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td align="right">User Commands</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td align="right">System Calls</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td align="right">C Library Calls</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td align="right">Devices</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td align="right">File Formats / Protocols</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td align="right">Games</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td align="right">Conventions / Macro Packages</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td align="right">System Administration</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"></div><div class="section" title="Dealing with Files and Directories"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id330395"></a>Dealing with Files and Directories</h2></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Listing Files and Directory Contents"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id330401"></a><span class="application">Listing Files and Directory Contents</span></h3></div></div></div><p> -<span class="application">ls</span>(1) is used to list files and directories, -their permissions, size, type, inode number, owner and group, and -plenty of additional information. For example, let's list what's in -the <code class="filename">/</code> directory for your new Slackware Linux system. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls /</code></strong> -bin/ dev/ home/ lost+found/ mnt/ proc/ sbin/ sys/ usr/ -boot/ etc/ lib/ media/ opt/ root/ srv/ tmp/ var/ -</pre><p>Notice that each of the listings is a directory. These are -easily distinguished from regular files due to the trailing /; standard -files do not have a suffix. Additionally, executable files will have an -asterisk suffix. But <span class="application">ls</span> can do so much -more. To get a view of the permissions of a file or directory, you'll -need to do a "long list". -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /home/alan/Desktop</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 15624161 2007-09-21 13:02 9780596510480.pdf --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 3829534 2007-09-14 12:56 imgscan.zip -drwxr-xr-x 3 alan root 168 2007-09-17 21:01 ipod_hack/ -drwxr-xr-x 2 alan users 200 2007-12-03 22:11 libgpod/ -drwxr-xr-x 2 alan users 136 2007-09-30 03:16 playground/ -</pre><p> -A long listing lets you view the permisions, user and group ownership, -file size, last modified date, and of course, the file name itself. -Notice that the first two entires are files, and the last three are -directories. This is denoted by the very first character on the line. -Regular files get a "-"; directories get a "d". There are several -other file types with their own denominators. Symbolic links for -example will have an "l". -</p><p> -Lastly, we'll show you how to list dot-files, or hidden files. Unlike -other operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, there is no special -property that differentiates "hidden" files from "unhidden" files. A -hidden file simply begins with a dot. To display these files along -with all the others, you just need to pass the [-a] argument to -<span class="application">ls</span>. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -a</code></strong> -.xine/ .xinitrc-backup .xscreensaver .xsession-errors SBo/ -.xinitrc .xinitrc-xfce .xsession .xwmconfig/ Shared/ -</pre><p> -You also likely noticed that your files and directories appear in -different colors. Many of the enhanced features of -<span class="application">ls</span> such as these colors or the trailing -characters indicating file-type are special features of the -<span class="application">ls</span> program that are turned on by passing -various arguments. As a convienience, Slackware sets up -<span class="application">ls</span> to use many of these optional arguments -by default. These are controlled by the LS_OPTIONS and LS_COLORS -environment variables. We will talk more about environment variables -in chapter 5. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Moving Around the Filesystem"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id351195"></a>Moving Around the Filesystem</h3></div></div></div><p> -<span class="application">cd</span> is the command used to change -directories. Unlike most other commands, <span class="application">cd</span> -is actually not it's own program, but is a shell built-in. Basically, -that means <span class="application">cd</span> does not have its own man -page. You'll have to check your shell's documentation for more details -on the <span class="application">cd</span> you may be using. For the most -part though, they all behave the same. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cd /</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/$</code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls</code></strong> -bin/ dev/ home/ lost+found/ mnt/ proc/ sbin/ sys/ usr/ -boot/ etc/ lib/ media/ opt/ root/ srv/ tmp/ var/ -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/$</code><strong class="userinput"><code>cd /usr/local</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/usr/local$</code> -</pre><p> -Notice how the prompt changed when we changed directories? The default -Slackware shell does this as a quick, easy way to see your current -directory, but this is not actually a function of -<span class="application">cd</span>. If your shell doesn't operate in this -way, you can easily get your current working directory with the -<span class="application">pwd</span>(1) command. (Most UNIX shells have -configurable prompts that can be coaxed into providing this same -functionality. In fact, this is another convience setup in the default -shell for you by Slackware.) -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>pwd</code></strong> -/usr/local -</pre></div><div class="section" title="File and Directory Creation and Deletion"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id354028"></a>File and Directory Creation and Deletion</h3></div></div></div><p> -While most applications can and will create their own files and -directories, you'll often want to do this on your own. Thankfully, -it's very easy using <span class="application">touch</span>(1) and -<span class="application">mkdir</span>(1). -</p><p> -<span class="application">touch</span> actually modifies the timestamp on a -file, but if that file doesn't exist, it will be created. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~/foo$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-01-18 15:01 bar1 -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~/foo$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>touch bar2</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-01-18 15:01 bar1 --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-01-18 15:05 bar2 -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~/foo$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>touch bar1</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-01-18 15:05 bar1 --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-01-18 15:05 bar2 -</pre><p> -Note how <code class="filename">bar2</code> was created in our second command, -and the third command simpl updated the timestamp on -<code class="filename">bar1</code> -</p><p> -<span class="application">mkdir</span> is used for (obviously enough) making -directories. <strong class="userinput"><code>mkdir foo</code></strong> will create the -directory "foo" within the current working directory. Additionally, -you can use the [-p] argument to create any -missing parent directories. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mkdir foo</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mkdir /slack/foo/bar/</code></strong> -mkdir: cannot create directory `/slack/foo/bar/': No such file or directory -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mkdir -p /slack/foo/bar/</code></strong> -</pre><p> -In the latter case, <span class="application">mkdir</span> will first create -"/slack", then "/slack/foo", and finally "/slack/foo/bar". If you -failed to use the [-p] argument, -<span class="application">man</span> would fail to create "/slack/foo/bar" -unless the first two already existed, as you saw in the example. -</p><p> -Removing a file is as easy as creating one. The -<span class="application">rm</span>(1) will remove a file (assuming of course -that you have permission to do this). There are a few very common -arguments to <span class="application">rm</span>. The first is - [-f] and is used to force the removal of a file -that you may lack explicit permission to delete. The - [-r] argument will remove directories and their -contents recursively. -</p><p> -There is another tool to remove directories, the humble -<span class="application">rmdir</span>(1). <span class="application">rmdir</span> -will only remove directories that are empty, and complain noisely about -those that contain files or sub-directories. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls</code></strong> -foo_1/ foo_2/ -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls foo_1</code></strong> -bar_1 -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rmdir foo_1</code></strong> -rmdir: foo/: Directory not empty -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rm foo_1/bar</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rmdir foo_1</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls foo_2</code></strong> -bar_2/ -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rm -fr foo_2</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls</code></strong> -</pre></div></div><div class="section" title="Reading Documents"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id354344"></a>Reading Documents</h2></div></div></div><p> -Traditionally, UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems are filled with -text files that at some point in time the system's users are going to -want to read. Naturally, there are plenty of ways of reading these -files, and we'll show you the most common ones. -</p><p> -In the early days, if you just wanted to see the contents of a file -(any file, whether it was a text file or some binary program) you would -use <span class="application">cat</span>(1) to view them. -<span class="application">cat</span> is a very simple program, which takes -one or more files, concatenates them (hence the name) and sends them to -the standard output, which is usually your terminal screen. This was -fine when the file was small and wouldn't scroll off the screen, but -inadequate for larger files as it had no built-in way of moving within -a document and reading it a paragraph at a time. Today, -<span class="application">cat</span> is still used quite extensively, but -predominately in scripts or for joining two or more files into one. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /etc/slackware-version</code></strong> -Slackware 12.0.0 -</pre><p> -Given the limitations of <span class="application">cat</span> some very -intelligent people sat down and began to work on an application to let -them read documents one page at a time. Naturally, such applications -began to be known as "pagers". One of the earliest of these was -<span class="application">more</span>(1), named because it would let you see -"more" of the file whenever you wanted. <span class="application">more</span> -will display the first few lines of a text file until your screen is -full, then pause. Once you've read through that screen, you can -proceed down one line by pressing ENTER, or an entire screen by -pressing SPACE. <span class="application">more</span> is also capable of -searching through a text file for keywords. Once you've displayed a -file in <span class="application">more</span>, simply press the / key and -enter a keyword. Upon pressing ENTER, the text will scroll until it -finds the next match. This is clearly a big improvement over -<span class="application">cat</span>, but still suffers from a serious flaw: -<span class="application">more</span> is not able to scroll back up through -the file to allow you to read something you might have missed. Clearly -a better solution is called for. -</p><p> -In order to address the short-comings of -<span class="application">more</span>, a new pager was developed and -ironically dubbed <span class="application">less</span>(1). -<span class="application">less</span> is a very powerful pager that supports -all of the functions of <span class="application">more</span> while adding -lots of additional features. To begin with, -<span class="application">less</span> allows you to use your arrow keys to -controll movement within the document. Due to its popularity, many -Linux distributions have begun to exclude -<span class="application">more</span> in favor of -<span class="application">less</span>. Slackware includes both. Moreover, -Slackware also includes a handy little pre-processor for -<span class="application">less</span> called -<code class="filename">lesspipe.sh</code>. This allows a user to exectute -<span class="application">less</span> on a number of non-text files. -<code class="filename">lesspipe.sh</code> will generate text output from running -a command on these files, and display it in -<span class="application">less</span>. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Linking"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id354528"></a>Linking</h2></div></div></div><p> -Links are a method of referring to one file by more than one name. By -using the <span class="application">ln</span>(1) application, a user can -reference one file with more than one name. The two files are not -carbon-copies of one another, but rather are the exact same file, just -with a different name. To remove the file entirely, all of its names -must be deleted. (This is actually the result of the way that -<span class="application">rm</span> and other tools like it work. Rather -than remove the contents of the file, they simply remove the reference -to the file, freeing that space to be re-used. -<span class="application">ln</span> will create a second reference or "link" -to that file.) -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ln /etc/slackware-version foo</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat foo</code></strong> -Slackware 12.0.0 -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /etc/slackware-version foo</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 17 2007-06-10 02:23 /etc/slackware-version --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 17 2007-06-10 02:23 foo -</pre><p> -Another type of link exists, the symlink. Symlinks, rather than being -another reference to the same file, are actually a special kind of file -in their own right. These symlinks point to another file or directory. -The primary advantage of symlinks is that they can refer to directories -as well as files, and they can span multiple filesystems. These are -created with the [-s] argument. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ln -s /etc/slackware-version foo</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat foo</code></strong> -Slackware 12.0.0 -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /etc/slackware-version foo</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 17 2007-06-10 02:23 /etc/slackware-version -lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 22 2008-01-25 04:16 foo -> /etc/slackware-version -</pre><p> -When using symlinks, remember that if the original file is deleted, -your symlink is useless; it simply points at a file that doesn't exist -anymore. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 5. The Bourne Again Shell"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id336592"></a>Chapter 5. The Bourne Again Shell</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id282479">What Is A Shell?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314358">Environment Variables</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id313824">Wildcards</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id335881">Tab Completion</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354670">Input and Output Redirection</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id354937">Terminals</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355019">Customization</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="What Is A Shell?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id282479"></a>What Is A Shell?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Yeah, what exactly is a shell? Well, a shell is basically a -command-line user environment. In essence, it is an application that -runs when the user logs in and allows him to run additional -applications. In some ways it is very similar to a graphical user -interface, in that it provides a framework for executing commands and -launching programs. There are many shells included with a full install -of Slackware, but in this book we're only going to discuss -<span class="application">bash</span>(1), the Bourne Again Shell. Advanced -users might want to consider using the powerful -<span class="application">zsh</span>(1), and users familiar with older UNIX -systems might appreciate <span class="application">ksh</span>. The truly -masochistic might choose the <span class="application">csh</span>, but new -users should stick to <span class="application">bash</span>. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Environment Variables"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id314358"></a>Environment Variables</h2></div></div></div><p> -All shells make certain tasks easier for the user by keeping track of -things in environment variables. An environment variable is simply a -shorter name for some bit of information that the user wishes to store -and make use of later. For example, the environment variable PS1 tells -<span class="application">bash</span> how to format its prompt. Other -variables may tell applications how to run. For example, the LESSOPEN -variable tells <span class="application">less</span> to run that handy -<code class="filename">lesspipe.sh</code> preprocessor we talked about, and -LS_OPTIONS tuns on color for <span class="application">ls</span>. -</p><p> -Setting your own envirtonment variables is easy. -<span class="application">bash</span> includes two built-in functions for -handling this: <span class="application">set</span> and -<span class="application">export</span>. Additionally, an environment -variable can be removed by using <span class="application">unset</span>. -(Don't panic if you accidently unset an environment variable and don't -know what it would do. You can reset all the default variables by -logging out of your terminal and logging back in.) You can reference a -variable by placing a dollar sign ($) in front of it. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>set FOO=bar</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo $FOO</code></strong> -bar -</pre><p> -The primary difference between <span class="application">set</span> and -<span class="application">export</span> is that -<span class="application">export</span> will (naturally) export the variable -to any sub-shells. (A sub-shell is simply another shell running inside -a parent shell.) You can easily see this behavior when working with -the PS1 variable that controls the <span class="application">bash</span> -prompt. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>set PS1='FOO '</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>export PS1='FOO '</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">FOO </code> -</pre><p> -There are many important environment variables that -<span class="application">bash</span> and other shells use, but one of the -most important ones you will run across is PATH. PATH is simply a list -of directories to search through for applications. For example, -<span class="application">top</span> is located at -<span class="application">/usr/bin/top</span>(1). You could run it simply by -specifying the complete path to it, but if -<code class="filename">/usr/bin</code> is in your PATH variable, -<span class="application">bash</span> will check there if you don't specify a -complete path one your own. You will most likely first notice this -when you attempt to run a program that is not in your PATH as a normal -user, for instance, <span class="application">ifconfig</span>(8). -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ifconfig</code></strong> -bash: ifconfig: command not found -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo $PATH</code></strong> -/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/usr/games:/opt/www/htdig/bin:. -</pre><p> -Above, you see a typical PATH for a mortal user. You can change it on -your own the same as any other environment variable. If you login as -root however, you'll see that root has a different PATH. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>su -</code></strong> -Password: -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo $PATH</code></strong> -/usr/local/sbin:/usr/sbin:/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/usr/games:/opt/www/htdig/bin -</pre></div><div class="section" title="Wildcards"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id313824"></a>Wildcards</h2></div></div></div><p> -Wildcards are special characters that tell the shell to match certain -criteria. If you have experience with DOS, you'll recognize * as a -wildcard that matches anything. <span class="application">bash</span> makes -use of this wildcard and several others to enable you to easily define -exactly what you want to do. -</p><p> -This first and most common of these is, of course, *. The asterisk -matches any character or combination of characters, including none. -Thus <strong class="userinput"><code>b*</code></strong> would match any files named b, ba, bab, -babc, bcdb, and so forth. Slightly less common is the ?. This -wildcard matches one instance of any character, so -<strong class="userinput"><code>b?</code></strong> would match ba and bb, but not b or bab. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>touch b ba bab</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls *</code></strong> -b ba bab -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls b?</code></strong> -ba -</pre><p> -No, the fun doesn't stop there! In addition to these two we also have -the bracket pair "[ ]" which allows us to fine tune exactly what we -want to match. Whenever <span class="application">bash</span> see the -bracket pair, it substitues the contents of the bracket. Any -combination of letters or numbers may be specified in the bracket as -long as they are comma seperacted. Additionally, ranges of numbers and -letters may be specified as well. This is probably best shown by -example. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls a[1-4,9]</code></strong> -a1 a2 a3 a4 a9 -</pre><p> -Since Linux is case-sensitive, capital and lower-case letters are -treated differently. All capital letters come before all lower-case -letters in "alphabetical" order, so when using ranges of capital and -lower-case letters, make sure to get them right. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls 1[W-b]</code></strong> -1W 1X 1Y 1Z 1a 1b -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls 1[w-B]</code></strong> -/bin/ls: cannot access 1[b-W]: No such file or directory -</pre><p> -In the second example, 1[b-W] isn't a valid range, so the shell treats -it as a filename, and since that file doesn't exist, -<span class="application">ls</span> tells you so. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Tab Completion"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id335881"></a>Tab Completion</h2></div></div></div><p> -Still think there's entirely too much work involved with using -wildcards? You're right. There's an even easier way when you're -dealing with long filenames: tab completion. Tab completion enables -you to type just enough of the filename to uniquely identify it, then -by hitting the TAB key, <span class="application">bash</span> will fill in -the rest for you. Even if you haven't typed in enough text to uniquely -identify a filename, the shell will fill in as much as it can for you. -Hitting TAB a second time will make it display a list of all possible -matches for you. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Input and Output Redirection"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id354670"></a>Input and Output Redirection</h2></div></div></div><p> -One of the defining features of Linux and other UNIX-like operating -systems is the number of small, relatively simple applications and the -ability to stack them together to create complex systems. This is -achieved by redirecting the output of one program to another, or by -drawing input from a file or second program. -</p><p> -To get started, we're going to show you how to redirect the output of a -program to a file. This is easily done with the '>' character. When -<span class="application">bash</span> sees the '>' character, it redirects -all of the standard output (also known as stdout) to whatever file name -follows. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo foo</code></strong> -foo -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo foo > /tmp/bar</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /tmp/bar</code></strong> -foo -</pre><p> -In this example, we show you what <span class="application">echo</span> would -do if its stdout was not redirected to a file, then we re-direct it to -the <code class="filename">/tmp/bar</code> file. If <code class="filename">/tmp/bar</code> -does not exist, it is created and the output from -<span class="application">echo</span> is placed within it. If -<code class="filename">/tmp/bar</code> did exist, then its contents are -over-written. This might not be the best idea if you want to keep -those contents in place. Thankfully, <span class="application">bash</span> -supports '>>' which will append the output to the file. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo foo</code></strong> -foo -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo foo > /tmp/bar</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /tmp/bar</code></strong> -foo -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo foo2 >> /tmp/bar</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /tmp/bar</code></strong> -foo -foo2 -</pre><p> -You can also re-direct the standard error (or stderr) to a file. This -is slightly different in that you must use '2>' instead of just '>'. -(Since <span class="application">bash</span> can re-direct input, stdout, and -stderr, each must be uniquely identifiable. 0 is input, 1 is stdout, -and 2 is stderr. Unless one of these is specified, -<span class="application">bash</span> will make its best guess as to what you -actually meant, and assumed anytime you use '>' you only want to -redirect stdout. 1> would have worked just as well.) -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rm bar</code></strong> -rm: cannot remove `bar': No such file or directory -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>rm bar 2> /tmp/foo</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /tmp/foo</code></strong> -rm: cannot remove `bar': No such file or directory -</pre><p> -You may also redirect the standard input (known as stdin) with the -'<' -character, though it's not used very often. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>fromdos < dosfile </code></strong> -</pre><p> -Finally, you can actually redirect the output of one program as input -to another. This is perhaps the most useful feature of -<span class="application">bash</span> and other shells, and is accomplished -using the '|' character. (This character is referred to as 'pipe'. -If you here some one talk of piping one program to another, this is -exactly what they mean.) -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ps auxw | grep getty</code></strong> -root 2632 0.0 0.0 1656 532 tty2 Ss+ Feb21 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty2 linux -root 3199 0.0 0.0 1656 528 tty3 Ss+ Feb15 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty3 linux -root 3200 0.0 0.0 1656 532 tty4 Ss+ Feb15 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty4 linux -root 3201 0.0 0.0 1656 532 tty5 Ss+ Feb15 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty5 linux -root 3202 0.0 0.0 1660 536 tty6 Ss+ Feb15 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty6 linux -</pre></div><div class="section" title="Terminals"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id354937"></a>Terminals</h2></div></div></div><p> -Slackware Linux and other UNIX-like operating systems allow users to -interact with them in many ways, but the most common, and arguably the -most useful, is the terminal. In the old days, terminals were keyboards -and monitors (sometimes even mice) wired into a mainframe or server via -serial connections. Today however, most terminals are virtual; that is, -they exist only in software. Virtual terminals allow users to connect -to the computer without requiring expensive and often incompatabile -hardware. Rather, a user needs only to run the software and they are -presented with a (usually) highly customizable virtual terminal. -</p><p> -The most common virtual terminals (in that every Slackware Linux machine -is going to have at least one) are the gettys. -<span class="application">agetty</span>(8) runs six instances by default on -Slackware, and allows local users (those who can physically sit down in -front of the computer and type at the keyboard) to login and run -applications. Each of these gettys is available on different tty -devices that are accessible seperately by pressing the -<span class="keycap"><strong>ALT</strong></span> key and one of the function keys from -<span class="keycap"><strong>F1</strong></span> through <span class="keycap"><strong>F6</strong></span>. Using these gettys -allows you to login multiple times, perhaps as different users, and run -applications in those users' shells silmutaneously. This is most -commonly done with servers which do not have -<span class="application">X</span> installed, but can be done on any machine. -</p><p> -On desktops, laptops, and other workstations where the user prefers a -graphical interface provided by <span class="application">X</span>, most -terminals are graphical. Slackware includes many different graphical -terminals, but the most commonly used are KDE's -<span class="application">konsole</span> and XFCE's -<span class="application">Terminal</span>(1) as well as the old standby, -xterm(1). If you are using a graphical interface, check your tool bars -or menus. Each desktop environment or window manager has a virtual -terminal (often called a terminal emulater), and they are all labelled -differently. Typically though, you will find them under a "System" -sub-menu in desktop environments. Executing any of these will give you -a graphical terminal and automatically run your default shell. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Customization"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id355019"></a>Customization</h2></div></div></div><p> -By now you should be pretty familiar with -<span class="application">bash</span> and you may have even noticed some odd -behavior. For example, when you login at the console, you're presented -with a prompt that looks a bit like this. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">alan@darkstar:~$ </code></pre><p> -However, sometimes you'll see a much less helpful prompt like this one. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">bash-3.1$ </code></pre><p> -The cause here is a special environment variable that controls the -<span class="application">bash</span> prompt. Some shells are considered -"login" shells and others are "interactive" shells, and both types read -different configuration files when started. Login shells read -<code class="filename">/etc/profile</code> and -<code class="filename">~/.bash_profile</code> when executed. Interactive shells -read <code class="filename">~/.bashrc</code> instead. This has some advantages -for power users, but is a common annoyance for many new users who want -the same environment anytime they execute -<span class="application">bash</span> and don't care about the difference -between login and interactive shells. If this applies to you, simply -edit your own ~/.bashrc file and include the following lines. -(For more information on -the different configuration files used, read the INVOCATION section of -the <span class="application">bash</span> man page.) -</p><pre class="screen"> -# ~/.bashrc -. /etc/profile -. ~/.bash_profile -</pre><p> -When using the above, all your login and interactive shells will have -the same environment settings and behave identically. Now, anytime we -wish to customize a shell setting, we only have to edit -<code class="filename">~/.bash_profile</code> for user-specific changes and -<code class="filename">/etc/profile</code> for global settings. Let's start by -configuring the prompt. -</p><p> -<span class="application">bash</span> prompts come in all shapes, colors, and -sizes, and every user has their own preferances. Personally, I prefer -short and simple prompts that take up a minimum of space, but I've seen -and used mutli-line prompts many times. One personal friend of mine -even included ASCII-art in his bash prompt. To change your prompt you -need only to change your PS1 variable. By default, Slackware attempts -to configure your PS1 variable thusly: -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code>echo $PS1 -\u@\h:\w\$ </pre><p> -Yes, this tiny piece of funny-looking figures controls your -<span class="application">bash</span> prompt. Basicaly, every character in -the PS1 variable is included in the prompt, unless it is a escaped by a -<span class="keycap"><strong>\</strong></span>, which tells <span class="application">bash</span> to -interpret it. There are many different escape sequences and we can't -discuss them all, but I'll explain these. The first "\u" translates to -the username of the current user. "\h" is the hostname of the machine -the terminal is attached to. "\w" is the current working directory, and -"\$" displays either a <span class="keycap"><strong>#</strong></span> or a <span class="keycap"><strong>$</strong></span> sign, -depending on whether or not the current user is root. A complete -listing of all prompt escape sequences is listed in the -<span class="application">bash</span> man page under the PROMPTING section. -</p><p> -Since we've gone through all this trouble to discuss the default -prompt, I thought I'd take some time to show you a couple example -prompts and the PS1 variable values needed to use them. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">Wed Jan 14 12:08 AM -alan@raven:~$ </code>echo $PS1 -\d \@\n\u@\h:\w$ -<code class="prompt">HOST: raven - JOBS: 0 - TTY: 3 -alan@~/Desktop/sb_3.0:$ </code>echo $PS1 -HOST: \H - JOBS: \j - TTY: \l\n\u@\w:\$ -</pre><p> -For even more information on configuring your bash prompt, including -information on setting up colored prompts, refer to -<code class="filename">/usr/doc/Linux-HOWTOs/Bash-Prompt-HOWTO</code>. After -reading that for a short while, you'll get an idea of just how powerful -your <span class="application">bash</span> prompts can be. I once even had a -prompt that gave me up to date weather information such as temperature -and barometric pressure! -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 6. The X Window System"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id325945"></a>Chapter 6. The X Window System</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id358884">What Is (And Isn't) X</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id320754">Configuring the X Server</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314642">Choosing a Window Manager</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351028">Setting Up A Graphical Login</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="What Is (And Isn't) X"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id358884"></a>What Is (And Isn't) X</h2></div></div></div><p> -Eons ago computer terminals came with a screen and a keyboard and not -much else. Mice hadn't come into common use and everything was menu -driven. Then came the Graphical User Interface (GUI) and the world was -changed. Today users are accustomed to moving a mouse around a screen, -clicking on icons and running tasks with fancy images and animation, -but UNIX systems predated this and so GUIs were added almost as an -afterthought. For many years, Linux and its UNIX brethren were -primarily used without graphics of any sort, but today it is perhaps -more common than not for users to prefer their Linux computers come -with shiney, flashy, clickable GUIs, and all these GUIs run on -<span class="application">X</span>(7). -</p><p> -So what is X? Is it the desktop with the icons? Is it the menus? Is it -the window manager? Does it mark the spot? The answer to all these is a -resounding "no". There are many parts to a GUI, but X is the most -fundamental. X is that application that receives input from the mouse, -keyboard, and possibly other devices. X is that application that tells -the graphics card what to do. In short, X is the application that talks -to your computer's hardware from graphical purposes; all other -graphical applications simply talk to X. -</p><p> -Let's stop for a moment and talk about nomenclature. X is just one of a -dozen names that you may encounter. It is also called X11, the X Window -System, X Window, X11R6, X Version 11, and several others. Whatever -you hear it called, simply understand that the speakers are referring -to X. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Configuring the X Server"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id320754"></a>Configuring the X Server</h2></div></div></div><p> -As powerful as Slackware Linux is, configuring X can be daunting and -is often one of the first real challenges a new user faces. Don't be -overly concerned if you find this a bit difficult. While many changes -have been made over the years that make this much easier, there are -still computers out there that don't properly auto-detect, or you'll -wish to make some change to some setting and it might not be immediately -apparent what to do. Just remember that when I started using X, it was -far more primitive than it is today, took far more work to configure, -and often crashed without telling the user what was wrong. If I and -thousands of others got this working back then, you can do it today. -Fortunately, Slackware includes a default configuration file that works -for most computers by using the VESA standard. This offers only the -most basic functions and may not allow your graphics card to operate at -its full potential. You may be limited to low resolutions, fewer -colors, and <span class="application">X</span> will be slower. Still, this is -an option for users, particularly those who only want to occassionally -run <span class="application">X</span>. You can try it out now simply by -running <span class="application">startx</span>(1) from a command prompt. -</p><p> -There are many ways to configure <span class="application">X</span>, but the -easiest is to use <span class="application">xorgsetup</span>. This will attempt -to probe probe your computer's hardware and write a working xorg.conf -file. This option is not garaunteed to work; there are some platforms -that it is known not to work with, and there are probably others as -well. Still, it is worth trying first as it is the quickest and least -complicated for a new user to attempt. -</p><p> -The second most popular way to configure <span class="application">X</span> -on your system is the handy <span class="application">xorgconfig</span>(1). -This application asks you a series of questions about your computer's -hardware and writes out a config file based on your choices. Unless you -know exactly what your hardware is, we recommend that you try -<span class="application">xorgsetup</span> first. -</p><p> -Lastly, you can manually configure your <span class="application">X</span> -server by modifying <code class="filename">/etc/X11/xorg.conf</code> with a text -editor. This is not normally a task for the faint of heart, but is -often the easiest way to make minor changes. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Choosing a Window Manager"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id314642"></a>Choosing a Window Manager</h2></div></div></div><p> -Slackware Linux includes many different window managers and desktop -environments. Window managers are the applications responsible for -painting application windows on the screen, resizing these windows, and -similar tasks. Desktop environments include a window manager, but also -add task bars, menus, icons, and more. Slackware includes both the KDE -and XFCE desktop environments and several additional window managers. -Which you use is entirely your own decision, but in general, window -managers tend to be faster than desktop environments and more suitable -to older systems with less memory and slower processors. Desktop -environments will be more comfortable for users accustomed to Microsoft -Windows. -</p><p> -LIST OF DE'S AND WINDOW MANAGERS. -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -FILL THIS IN!!!! -</p><p> -The easiest way to choose a window manager is -<span class="application">xwmconfig</span>(1), included with Slackware Linux. -This application allows a user to choose what window manager to run -with <span class="application">startx</span>. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Setting Up A Graphical Login"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id351028"></a>Setting Up A Graphical Login</h2></div></div></div><p> -By default, when you boot your Slackware Linux system you are presented -with a login prompt on a virtual terminal. This is more than adequate -for most people's needs. If you need to run commandline applications, -you may login and do so right away. If you want to run X, simply executing -<span class="application">startx</span> will do that for you nicely. -But suppose you almost exclusively -use your system for graphical duties like many laptop owners? Wouldn't -it be nice for Slackware to take you straight into a GUI? Fortunately, -there's an easy way to do just that. -</p><p> -Slackware uses the System V init system which allows the administrator -to boot into or change to different runlevels, which are really just -different "states" the computer can be in. In fact, shutting down the -computer is really only a case of changing to a runlevel which -accomplishes just that. Runlevels can be rather complicated, so we -won't delve into them any further than necessary. -</p><p> -Runlevels are configured in <code class="filename">inittab</code>(5). -The most common ones are -runlevel 3 (Slackware's default) and runlevel 4 (GUI). In order to tell -Slackware to boot to a GUI screen, simply open -<code class="filename">/etc/inittab</code> with your -favorite editor of choice. (You may wish to refer to one of the -chapters on <span class="application">vi</span> or -<span class="application">emacs</span> at this point.) Near the top, you'll -see the relevant entries. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# These are the default runlevels in Slackware: -# 0 = halt -# 1 = single user mode -# 2 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3) -# 3 = multiuser mode (default Slackware runlevel) -# 4 = X11 with KDM/GDM/XDM (session managers) -# 5 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3) -# 6 = reboot - -# Default runlevel. (Do not set to 0 or 6) -id:3:initdefault: -</pre><p> -In this file (along with most configuration files) anything following a -hash symbol # is a comment and not interpreted by init(8). Don't worry -if you don't understand everything about inittab, as many veteran users -don't either. The only line we are interested in is the last on above. -Simply change the 3 to a 4 and reboot. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# These are the default runlevels in Slackware: -# 0 = halt -# 1 = single user mode -# 2 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3) -# 3 = multiuser mode (default Slackware runlevel) -# 4 = X11 with KDM/GDM/XDM (session managers) -# 5 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3) -# 6 = reboot - -# Default runlevel. (Do not set to 0 or 6) -id:4:initdefault: -</pre></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 7. Printing"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id292994"></a>Chapter 7. Printing</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id337782">Choosing A Printer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id357050">Setting Up a Printer in CUPS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id322037">Commandline Printing Tools</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="Choosing A Printer"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id337782"></a>Choosing A Printer</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Setting Up a Printer in CUPS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id357050"></a>Setting Up a Printer in CUPS</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Commandline Printing Tools"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id322037"></a>Commandline Printing Tools</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 8. Users and Groups"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id337784"></a>Chapter 8. Users and Groups</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359209">What Are Users and Groups?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341153">Managing Users and Groups</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359270">Other User and Group Tools</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id321249">Managing Users and Groups Manually</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="What Are Users and Groups?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id359209"></a>What Are Users and Groups?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Slackware Linux inherits a strong multi-user tradition from its UNIX -inspiration. This means that multiple people may use the system at -once, but it also means that each of these people may have different -permissions. This allows users to prevent others from modifying their -files, or lets system administrators explicitly define what users can -and cannot do on the system. Moreover, users need not be actual people -at all. In fact, Slackware includes several dozen pre-defined user -and group accounts that are not typically used by regular users. Rather -these accounts allow the system administrator to segment the system for -security reasons. We'll see how that's done in the next chapter on -filesystem permissions. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Managing Users and Groups"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id341153"></a>Managing Users and Groups</h2></div></div></div><p> -The easiest way to add new users in Slackware is through the use of our -very fine <span class="application">adduser</span> shell script. -<span class="application">adduser</span> will prompt you to enter the details -of the new user you wish to creature and step you through the process -quickly and easily. It will even create a password for the new user. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>adduser</code></strong> - -Login name for new user []: <strong class="userinput"><code>david</code></strong> - -User ID ('UID') [ defaults to next available ]: - -Initial group [ users ]: -Additional UNIX groups: - -Users can belong to additional UNIX groups on the system. -For local users using graphical desktop login managers such -as XDM/KDM, users may need to be members of additional groups -to access the full functionality of removable media devices. - -* Security implications * -Please be aware that by adding users to additional groups may -potentially give access to the removable media of other users. - -If you are creating a new user for remote shell access only, -users do not need to belong to any additional groups as standard, -so you may press ENTER at the next prompt. - -Press ENTER to continue without adding any additional groups -Or press the UP arrow to add/select/edit additional groups -: <strong class="userinput"><code>audio cdrom floppy plugdev video</code></strong> - -Home directory [ /home/david ] - -Shell [ /bin/bash ] - -Expiry date (YYYY-MM-DD) []: - -New account will be created as follows: - ---------------------------------------- -Login name.......: david -UID..............: [ Next available ] -Initial group....: users -Additional groups: audio,cdrom,floppy,plugdev,video -Home directory...: /home/david -Shell............: /bin/bash -Expiry date......: [ Never ] - -This is it... if you want to bail out, hit Control-C. Otherwise, press -ENTER to go ahead and make the account. - - -Creating new account... - - -Changing the user information for david -Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default - Full Name []: - Room Number []: - Work Phone []: - Home Phone []: - Other []: -Changing password for david -Enter the new password (minimum of 5, maximum of 127 characters) -Please use a combination of upper and lower case letters and numbers. -New password: -Re-enter new password: -Password changed. - - -Account setup complete. -</pre><p> -The addition of optional groups needs a little explaining. Every user -in Slackware has a single group that it is always a member of. By -default, this is the "users" group. However, users can belong to more -than one group at a time and will inherit all the permissions of every -group they belong to. Typical desktop users will need to add several -group memberships in order to do things like play sound or access -removeable media like cdroms or USB flash drives. You can simply press -the up arrow key at this section and a list of default groups for -desktop users will magically appear. You can of course, add to or -remove groups from this listing. -</p><p> -Now that we've demonstrated how to use the interactive -<span class="application">adduser</span> program, lets look at some powerful -non-interactive tools that you may wish to use. The first is -<span class="application">useradd</span>(8). -<span class="application">useradd</span> is a little less friendly, but much -faster for creating users in batches. This makes it ideal for use in -shell scripts. In fact, <span class="application">adduser</span> is just such -a shell script and uses <span class="application">useradd</span> for most of -the heavy lifting. <span class="application">useradd</span> has many options -and we can't explain them all here, so refer to its man page for the -complete details. Now, let's make a new user. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>useradd -d /data/home/alan -s /bin/bash -g users -G audio,cdrom,floppy,plugdev,video alan</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Here I have added the user "alan". I specified the user's home -directory as <code class="filename">/data/home/alan</code> and used -<span class="application">bash</span> as my shell. Also, I specified my -default group as "users" and added myself to a number of useful groups -for dekstop use. You'll note that <span class="application">useradd</span> -does not do any prompting like <span class="application">adduser</span>. -Unless you want to accept the defaults for everything, you'll need to -tell <span class="application">useradd</span> what to do. -</p><p> -Now that we know how to add users, we should learn how to add groups. -As you might have guessed, the command for doing this is -<span class="application">groupadd</span>(8). -<span class="application">groupadd</span> works in the same way as -<span class="application">useradd</span>, but with far fewer options. The -following command adds the group "slackers" to the system. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>groupadd slackers</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Deleting users and groups is easy as well. Simply run the -<span class="application">userdel</span>(8) and -<span class="application">groupdel</span>(8) commands. By default, -<span class="application">userdel</span> will leave the user's home directory -on the system. You can remove this with the [-r] argument. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Other User and Group Tools"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id359270"></a>Other User and Group Tools</h2></div></div></div><p> -Several other tools exist for managing users and groups. Perhaps the -most important one is <span class="application">passwd</span>(1). This -command changes a user account's password. Normal users may change -their own passwords only, but root can change anyone's password. Also, -root can lock a user account with the [-l] argument. This -doesn't actually shutout the account, but instead changes the user's -encrypted password to a value that can't be matched. -</p><p> -Another useful tool is <span class="application">chsh</span>(1) which changes a -user's default shell. Like <span class="application">passwd</span>, normal -users can only change their own shell, but the root user can change -anyone's. -</p><p> -The last tool we're going to discuss is -<span class="application">chfn</span>(1). This is used to enter identifying -information on the user such as his phone number and real name. This -information is stored in the <code class="filename">passwd</code>(5) file and -retrieved using <span class="application">finger</span>(1). -</p></div><div class="section" title="Managing Users and Groups Manually"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id321249"></a>Managing Users and Groups Manually</h2></div></div></div><p> -Like most things in Slackware Linux, users and groups are stored in -plain-text files. This means that you can edit all the details of a -user, or even create a new user or group simply by editing these files -and doing a few other tasks like creating the user's home directory. Of -course, after you see how this is done you'll appreciate just how -simple the included tools make this task. -</p><p> -Our first stop is the <code class="filename">/etc/passwd</code> file. Here, all -the information about a user is stored, except for (oddly enough) the -user's password. The reason for this is rather simple. -<code class="filename">/etc/passwd</code> must be readable by all users on the -system, so you wouldn't want passwords stored there, even if they are -encrypted. Let's take a quick look at my entry in this file. -</p><pre class="screen"> -alan:x:1000:100:,,,:/home/alan:/bin/bash -</pre><p> -Each line in this file contains a number of fields seperated by a -colon. They are, from left to right: username, password, UID, GUID, a -comment field, home directory, and shell. You'll notice that the -password field for every entry is an <span class="keycap"><strong>x</strong></span>. That is -because Slackware uses shadow passwords, so the actual encrypted -password is stored in <code class="filename">/etc/shadow</code>. Let's take a -look there. -</p><pre class="screen"> -alan:$1$HlR?M3fkL@oeJmsdLfhsLFM*4dflPh8:14197:0:99999:7::: -</pre><p> -The <code class="filename">shadow</code> file contains more than just the -encrypted password as you'll notice. The fields here, again from left -to right, are: username, encrypted password, last day the password was -changed, days before the password may be changed again, how many days -before the password expires, days that the account will be disabled -after expiring, when the account was disabled, and a reserved field. -You may notice on some accounts that the various "days" fields often -include very large numbers. The reason for this is that Slackware -counts time from the "Epoch" which is January 1, 1970 for historical -reasons. -</p><p> -To create a new user account, you'll just need to open these files -using <span class="application">vipw</span>(8). This will open -<code class="filename">/etc/passwd</code> in the editor -defined by your VISUAL variable or your EDITOR variable if VISUAL isn't -defined. If neither is present, it will fall back to -<span class="application">vi</span> by default. If you pass the [-s] -argument, it will open <code class="filename">/etc/shadow</code> instead. It's -important to use <span class="application">vipw</span> instead of using any -other editor, because <span class="application">vipw</span> will lock the -file and prevent other programs from editing it right underneath your feet. -</p><p> -That isn't all you'll need to do however; you must also create the -user's home directory and change the user's password using -<span class="application">passwd</span>. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 9. Filesystem Permissions"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id290832"></a>Chapter 9. Filesystem Permissions</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id312644">Permissions Overview</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id336783"><span class="application">chmod</span>, -<span class="application">chown</span>, and -<span class="application">chgrp</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id342316">SUID, SGID, and the "Sticky" Bit</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="Permissions Overview"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id312644"></a>Permissions Overview</h2></div></div></div><p> -As we've discussed, Slackware Linux is a multi-user operating system. -Because of this, its filesystems are mutli-user as well. This means -that every file or directory has a set of permissions that can grant or -deny privileges to different users. There are three basic permissions -and three sets of permissions for each file. Let's take a look at an -example file. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /bin/ls</code></strong> --rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 81820 2007-06-08 21:12 /bin/ls -</pre><p> -Recall from chapter 4 that <span class="application">ls</span> [-l] -lists the permissions for a file or -directory along with the user and group that "own" the file. In this -case, the permissions are rwxr-xr-x, the user is root and the group is -also root. The permissions section, while grouped together, is really -three seperate pieces. The first set of three letters are the -permissions granted to the user that owns the file. The second set of -three are those granted to the group owner, and the final three are -permissions for everyone else. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id337693"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 9.1. Permissions of /bin/ls</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Permissions of /bin/ls" border="1"><colgroup><col><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Set</th><th>Listing</th><th>Meaning</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Owner</td><td>rwx</td><td>The owner "root" may read, write, and execute</td></tr><tr><td>Group</td><td>r-x</td><td>The group "root" may read and execute</td></tr><tr><td>Others</td><td>r-x</td><td>Everyone else may read and execute</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -The permissions are pretty self explainatory of course, at least for -files. Read, write, and execute allow you to read a file, write to it, -or execute it. But what do these permissions mean for directories? -Simply put, the read permissions grants the ability to list the -directory's contents (say with <span class="application">ls</span>). The write -permission grants the ability to create new files in the directory as -well as delete the entire directory, even if you otherwise wouldn't be -able to delete some of the other files inside it. The execute -permission grants the ability to actually enter the directory (with the -<span class="application">bash</span> built-in command cd for example). -</p><p> -Let's look at the permissions on a directory now. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~$ </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -ld /home/alan</code></strong> -drwxr-x--- 60 alan users 3040 2008-06-06 17:14 /home/alan/ -</pre><p> -Here we see the permissions on my home directory and its ownership. The -directory is owned by the user alan and the group users. The user is -granted all rights (rwx), the group is granted only read and execute -permissions (r-x), and everyone else is prohibited from doing anything. -</p></div><div class="section" title="chmod, chown, and chgrp"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id336783"></a><span class="application">chmod</span>, -<span class="application">chown</span>, and -<span class="application">chgrp</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -So now that we know what permissions are, how do we change them? And -for that matter, how do we assign user and group ownership? The answer -is right here in this section. -</p><p> -The first tool we'll discuss is the useful -<span class="application">chown</span> -(1) command. Using <span class="application">chown</span>, we can (you guessed -it), change the ownership of a file or -directory. <span class="application">chown</span> is historically used only -to change the user ownership, but can change the group ownership as well. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /tmp/foo</code></strong> -total 0 --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 22:29 b -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chown root /tmp/foo/a</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /tmp/foo</code></strong> -total 0 --rw-r--r-- 1 root users 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 22:29 b -</pre><p> -By using a colon after the user account, you may also specify a new -group account. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chown root:root /tmp/foo/b</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code> ls -l /tmp/foo</code></strong> -total 0 --rw-r--r-- 1 root users 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-06-06 22:29 b -</pre><p> -<span class="application">chown</span> can also be used recursively to change -the ownership of all files and directories below a target directory. -The following command would change all the files under the directory -<code class="filename">/tmp/foo</code> to have their ownership set to root:root. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chown -R root:root /tmp/foo/b</code></strong></pre><p> -Specifying a colon and a group name without a user name will simply -change the group for a file and leave the user ownership intact. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chown :wheel /tmp/foo/a</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /tmp/foo</code></strong> -ls -l /tmp/foo -total 0 --rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-06-06 22:29 b -</pre><p> -The younger brother of <span class="application">chown</span> is the -slightly less useful <span class="application">chgrp</span>(1). This -command works just like <span class="application">chown</span>, except -it can only change the group -ownership of a file. Since <span class="application">chown</span> can -already do this, why bother with -<span class="application">chgrp</span>? The answer is simple. Many other -operating systems use a -different version of <span class="application">chown</span> that cannot -change the group ownership, so -if you ever come across one of those, now you know how. -</p><p> -There's a reason we discussed changing ownership before changing -permissions. The first is a much easier concept to grasp. The tool for -changing permissions on a file or directory is -<span class="application">chmod</span>(1). The syntax for it -is nearly identical to that for <span class="application">chown</span>, but -rather than -specify a user or group, the administrator must specify either a set of -octal permissions or a set of alphabetic permissions. Neither one is -especially easy to grasp the first time. We'll begin with the less -complicated octal permissions. -</p><p> -Octal permissions derive their name from being assigned by one of eight -digits, namely the numbers 0 through 7. Each permissions is assigned a -number that is a power of 2, and those numbers are added together to -get the final permissions for one of the permission sets. If this -sounds confusing, maybe this table will help. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id330724"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 9.2. Octal Permissions</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Octal Permissions" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Permission</th><th>Meaning</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Read</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Write</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Execute</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -By adding these values together, we can reach any number between 0 and -7 and specify all possible permission combinations. For example, to -grant both read and write privilages while denying execute, we would -use the number 6. The number 3 would grant write and execute -permissions, but deny the ability to read the file. We must specify a -number for each of the three sets when using octal permissions. It's -not possible to specify only a set of user or group permissions this -way for example. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /tmp/foo/a</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod 750 /tmp/foo/a</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /tmp/foo/a</code></strong> --rwxr-x--- 1 root root 0 2008-06-06 22:29 a -</pre><p> -<span class="application">chmod</span> can also use letter values along with -<span class="keycap"><strong>+</strong></span> or <span class="keycap"><strong>-</strong></span> to grant or deny permissions. -While this may be easier to -remember, it's often easier to use the octal permissions. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id342090"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 9.3. Alphabetic Permissions</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Alphabetic Permissions" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Permission</th><th>Letter Value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Read</td><td>r</td></tr><tr><td>Write</td><td>w</td></tr><tr><td>Execute</td><td>x</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><div class="table"><a name="id342158"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 9.4. Alphabetic Users and Groups</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Alphabetic Users and Groups" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Accounts Affected</th><th>Letter Value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>User/Owner</td><td>u</td></tr><tr><td>Group</td><td>g</td></tr><tr><td>Others/World</td><td>o</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -To use the letter values with <span class="application">chmod</span>, you -must specify which set to use them with, either "u" for user, "g" for -group, and "o" for all others. You must also specify whether you are -adding or removing permissions with the "+" and "-" signs. Multiple -sets can be changed at once by seperating each with a comma. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l</code></strong> -total 0 --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 a --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 b --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 c --rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 d -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod u+x a</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod g+w b</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod u+x,g+x,o-r c</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod u+rx-w,g+r,o-r d</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:/tmp/foo# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l</code></strong> --rwxr--r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 a* --rw-rw-r-- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 b --rwxr-x--- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 c* --r-xr----- 1 alan users 0 2008-06-06 23:37 d* -</pre><p> -Which you prefer to use is entirely up to you. There are places where -one is better than the other, so a real Slacker will know both inside -out. -</p></div><div class="section" title='SUID, SGID, and the "Sticky" Bit'><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id342316"></a>SUID, SGID, and the "Sticky" Bit</h2></div></div></div><p> -We're not quite done with permissions just yet. There are three other -"special" permissions in addition to those mentioned above. They are -SUID, SGID, and the sticky bit. When a file has one or more of these -permissions set, it behaves in special ways. The SUID and SGID -permissions change the way an application is run, while the sticky bit -restricts deletion of files. These permissions are applied with -<span class="application">chmod</span> -like read, write, and execute, but with a twist. -</p><p> -SUID and SGID stand for "Set User ID" and "Set Group ID" respectively. -When an application with one of these bits is set, the application runs -with the user or group ownership permissions of that application -regardless of what user actually -executed it. Let's take a look at a common SUID application, the humble -<span class="application">passwd</span> and the files it modifies. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -l /usr/bin/passwd \ - /etc/passwd \ - /etc/shadow</code></strong> --rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1106 2008-06-03 22:23 /etc/passwd --rw-r----- 1 root shadow 627 2008-06-03 22:22 /etc/shadow --rws--x--x 1 root root 34844 2008-03-24 16:11 /usr/bin/passwd* -</pre><p> -Notice the permissions on <span class="application">passwd</span>. Instead of -an <span class="keycap"><strong>x</strong></span> in the user's execute slot, we have an -<span class="keycap"><strong>s</strong></span>. This tells us that -<span class="application">passwd</span> is a SUID program, and when we run -it, the process will run as the user "root" rather than as the user -that actually executed it. The reason for this is readily apparent as -soon as you look at the two files it modifies. Neither -<code class="filename">/etc/passwd</code> nor <code class="filename">/etc/shadow</code> -are writeable by anyone other than root. Since users need to change -their personal information, <span class="application">passwd</span> must be -run as root in order to modify those files. -</p><p> -So what about the sticky bit? The sticky bit restricts the ability to -move or delete files and is only ever set on directories. Non-root -users cannot move or delete any files under a directory with the sticky -bit set unless they are the owner of that file. Normally anyone with -write permission to the file can do this, but the sticky bit prevents -it for anyone but the owner (and of course, root). Let's take a look at -a common "sticky" directory. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ls -ld /tmp</code></strong> -drwxrwxrwt 1 root root 34844 2008-03-24 16:11 /tmp -</pre><p> -Naturally, being a directory for the storage of temporary files sytem -wide, <code class="filename">/tmp</code> needs to be readable, writeable, and -executable by anyone and everyone. Since any user is likely to have a -file or two stored here at any time, it only makes good sense to -prevent other users from deleting those files, so the sticky bit has -been set. You can see it by the presence of the <span class="keycap"><strong>t</strong></span> in -place of the <span class="keycap"><strong>x</strong></span> in the world permissions section. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id342457"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 9.5. SUID, SGID, and "Sticky" Permissions</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary='SUID, SGID, and "Sticky" Permissions' border="1"><colgroup><col><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Permission Type</th><th>Octal Value</th><th>Letter Value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>SUID</td><td>4</td><td>s</td></tr><tr><td>SGID</td><td>2</td><td>s</td></tr><tr><td>Sticky</td><td>1</td><td>t</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -When using octal permissions, you must specify an additional leading -octal value. For example, to recreate the permission on -<code class="filename">/tmp</code>, we would use 1777. To recreate those -permissions on <code class="filename">/usr/bin/passwd</code>, we would use 4711. -Essentially, any time this leading fourth octet isn't specified, -<span class="application">chmod</span> assumes its value to be 0. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod 1777 /tmp</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod 4711 /usr/bin/passwd</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Using the alphabetic permission values is slightly different. Assuming -the two files above have permissions of 0000 (no permissions at all), -here is how we would set them. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod ug+rwx,o+rwt /tmp</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod u+rws,go+x /usr/bin/passwd</code></strong> -</pre></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 10. Working with Filesystems"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id283108"></a>Chapter 10. Working with Filesystems</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id325517">The Filesystem Hierarchy</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318597">Local Filesystem Types</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318610">ext2</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318624">ext3</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318642">reiserfs</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318656">XFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318671">JFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318685">iso9660</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id318711">vfat</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355976">swap</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id355992">Using <span class="application">mount</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360747">Network Filesystems</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360758">NFS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id360899">SMB</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></div><div class="section" title="The Filesystem Hierarchy"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id325517"></a>The Filesystem Hierarchy</h2></div></div></div><p> -Slackware Linux stores all of its files and directories under a single -<code class="filename">/</code> directory, typically referred to as "root". This -is in stark contract to what you may be familiar with in the form of -Microsoft Windows. Different hard disk partitions, cdroms, usb flash -drives, and even floppy disks can all be mounted in directories under -<code class="filename">/</code>, but do not have anything like "drive letters". -The contents of these devices can be found almost anywhere, but there -are some sane defaults that Slackware sets up for you. For example, -cd-rw drives are most often found at <code class="filename">/mnt/cd-rw</code>. -Here are a few common directories present on nearly all Slackware Linux -installations, and what you can expect to find there. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id336627"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 10.1. Filesystem Layout</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Filesystem Layout" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead></thead><tbody><tr><td>/</td><td>The root directory, under which all others exist</td></tr><tr><td>/bin</td><td>Minimal set of binary programs for all users</td></tr><tr><td>/boot</td><td>The kernel, initrd, and other requirements for booting Slackware</td></tr><tr><td>/etc/</td><td>System configuration files</td></tr><tr><td>/dev</td><td>Collection of special files allowing direct access to hardware</td></tr><tr><td>/home</td><td>User directories where personal files and settings are stored</td></tr><tr><td>/media</td><td>Directory for auto-mounting features in DBUS/HAL</td></tr><tr><td>/mnt</td><td>Places to temporarily mount removable media</td></tr><tr><td>/opt</td><td>Directory where some (typicaly proprietary) software may be installed</td></tr><tr><td>/proc</td><td>Kernel exported filesystem for process information</td></tr><tr><td>/root</td><td>The root user's home directory</td></tr><tr><td>/sbin</td><td>Minimal set of system or superuser binaries</td></tr><tr><td>/srv</td><td>Site-specific data such as web pages served by this system</td></tr><tr><td>/sys</td><td>Special kernel implimentation details</td></tr><tr><td>/tmp</td><td>Directory reserved for temporary files for all users</td></tr><tr><td>/usr</td><td>All non-essential programs, libraries, and shared files</td></tr><tr><td>/var</td><td>Regularly changing data such as log files</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"></div><div class="section" title="Local Filesystem Types"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id318597"></a>Local Filesystem Types</h2></div></div></div><p> -The Linux kernel supports a wide variety of filesystems, which allows -you to choose from a long list of features to tailor to your particular -need. Fortunately, most of the default filesystem types are adequate -for any needs you may have. Some filesystems are geared towards -particular media. For example, the iso9660 filesystem is used almost -exclusively for CD and DVD media. -</p><div class="section" title="ext2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318610"></a>ext2</h3></div></div></div><p> -ext2 is the oldest filesystem included in Slackware Linux for storing -data on hard disks. Compared to other filesystems, ext2 is simplistic. -It is faster than most others for reading and writing data, but does -not include any journaling capability. This means that after a hard -crash, the filesystem must be exhaustively checked to discover and -(hopefully) fix any errors. -</p></div><div class="section" title="ext3"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318624"></a>ext3</h3></div></div></div><p> -ext3 is the younger cousin of ext2. It was designed to replace ext2 in -most situations and shares much the same code-base, but adds journaling -support. In fact, ext3 and ext2 are so much alike that it is possible -to convert one to the other on the fly without lose of data. ext3 -enjoys a lot of popularity for these reasons. There are many tools -available for recovering data from this filesystem in the event of -catastrophic hardware failure as well. ext3 is a good general purpose -filesystem with journaling support, but fails to perform as well as -other journaling filesystems in specific cases. One pitfall to ext3 is -that the filesystem must still go through this exhaustive check every -so often. This is done when the filesystem is mounted, usually when the -computer is booted, and causes an annoying delay. -</p></div><div class="section" title="reiserfs"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318642"></a>reiserfs</h3></div></div></div><p> -reiserfs is one of the oldest journaling filesystems for the Linux -kernel and has been supported by Slackware for many years. It is a very -fast filesystem particularly well suited for storing, retrieving, and -writing lots of small files. Unfortunately there are few tools for -recovering data should you experience a drive failure, and reiserfs -partitions experience corruption more often than ext3. -</p></div><div class="section" title="XFS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318656"></a>XFS</h3></div></div></div><p> -XFS was contributed to the Linux kernel by SGI and is one of the best -filesystems for working with large volumes and large files. XFS uses -more RAM than other filesystems, but if you need to work with large -files its performance there is well worth the penalty in memory usage. -XFS is not particularly ill-suited for desktop or laptop use, but -really shines on a server that handles medium to large size files all -day long. Like ext3, XFS is a fully journaled filesystem. -</p></div><div class="section" title="JFS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318671"></a>JFS</h3></div></div></div><p> -JFS was contributed to the Linux kernel by IBM and is well known for -its responsiveness even under extreme conditions. It can span colossal -volumes making it particularly well-suited for Network Attached Storage -(NAS) devices. JFS's long history and thorough testing make it one of -the most reliable journaling filesystems available for Linux. -</p></div><div class="section" title="iso9660"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318685"></a>iso9660</h3></div></div></div><p> -iso9660 is a filesystem specifically designed for optical media such as -CDs and DVDs. Since optical disks are read-only media, the linux kernel -does not even include write support for this filesystem. In order to -create an iso9660 filesystem, you must use user-land tools like -<span class="application">mkisofs</span>(8) or -<span class="application">growisofs</span>(8). -</p></div><div class="section" title="vfat"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id318711"></a>vfat</h3></div></div></div><p> -Sometimes you may need to share data between Windows and Linux -computers, but can't transfer the files over a network. Instead you -require a shared hard drive partition or a USB flash drive. The humble -vfat filesystem is the best choice here since it is supported by the -largest variety of operating systems. Unfortuantely, being a Microsoft -designed filesystem, it does not store permissions in the same way as -traditional Linux filesystems. This means that special options must be -used to allow multiple users to access data on this filesystem. -</p></div><div class="section" title="swap"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id355976"></a>swap</h3></div></div></div><p> -Unlike other filesystems which hold files and directories, swap -partitions hold virtual memory. This is very useful as it prevents the -system from crashing should all your RAM be consumed. Instead, the -kernel copies portions of the RAM into swap and frees them up for other -applications to use. Think of it as adding virtual memory to your -computer, very slow virtual memory. swap is typically a fail-safe and -shouldn't be relied upon for continual use. Add more RAM to your system -if you find yourself using lots of swap. -</p></div></div><div class="section" title="Using mount"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id355992"></a>Using <span class="application">mount</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Now that we've learned what (some of) the different filesystems -available in Linux are, it's time we looked at how to use them. In -order to read or write data on a filesystem, that filesystem must first -be mounted. To do this, we (naturally) use -<span class="application">mount</span>(8). The first thing we must do is -decide where we want the filesystem located. Recall that there are no -such things are drive letters denoting filesystems in Linux. Instead, -all filesystems are mounted on directories. The base filesystem on -which you install Slackware is always located at <code class="filename">/</code> -and others are always located in subdirectories of -<code class="filename">/</code>. <code class="filename">/mnt/hd</code> is a common place -to temporarily locate a partition, so we'll use that in our first -example. In order to mount a filesystem's contents, we must tell mount -what kind of filesystem we have, where to mount it, and any special -options to use. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount -t ext3 /dev/hda3 /mnt/hd -o ro</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Let's disect this. We have an ext3 filesystem located on the third -partition of the first IDE device, and we've decided to mount its -contents on the directory <code class="filename">/mnt/hd</code>. Additionally, -we have mounted it read-only so no changes can be made to these -contents. The [-t ext3] argument tells -<span class="application">mount</span> -what type of filesystem we are using, -in this case it is ext3. This lets the kernel know which driver to use. -Often <span class="application">mount</span> can determine this for itself, -but it never hurts to explicitly declare it. Second, we tell -<span class="application">mount</span> -where to locate the filesystem's contents. Here we've chosen -<code class="filename">/mnt/hd</code>. -Finally, we must decide what options to use if any. These are declared -with the [-o] argument. A short-list of the most common -options follows. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id356105"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 10.2. Common mount options</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="Common mount options" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead></thead><tbody><tr><td>ro</td><td>read-only</td></tr><tr><td>rw</td><td>read-write (default)</td></tr><tr><td>uid</td><td>user to own the contents of the filesystem</td></tr><tr><td>gid</td><td>group to own the contents of the filesystem</td></tr><tr><td>noexec</td><td>prevent execution of any files on the filesystem</td></tr><tr><td>defaults</td><td>sane defaults for most filesystems</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -If this is your first Linux installation, the only options you -typically need to be concerned about are [ro] and - [rw]. The exception to this rule comes when you are dealing -with filesystems that don't handle traditional Linux permissions such -as vfat or NTFS. In those cases you'll need to use the [uid] -or [gid] options to allow non-root users access to these -filesystems. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount -t vfat /dev/hda4 /mnt/hd -o uid=alan</code></strong> -</pre><p> -But Alan, that's appalling! I don't want to have to tell mount what -filesystem or options to use everytime I load a CD. It should be easier -than that. Well thankfully, it is. The <code class="filename">/etc/fstab</code> -file contains all this information for filesystems that the installer -sets up for you, and you can make additions to it as well. -<code class="filename">fstab</code>(5) looks like a simple table containing the -device to mount along with its filesystem type and optional arguments. -Let's take a look. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>cat /etc/fstab</code></strong> -/dev/hda1 / reiserfs defaults 1 1 -/dev/hda2 /home reiserfs defaults 1 2 -/dev/hda3 swap swap defaults 0 0 -/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom auto noauto,owner,ro,users 0 0 -/dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy auto noauto,owner 0 0 -devpts /dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0 -proc /proc proc defaults 0 0 -</pre><p> -If you have an entry in <code class="filename">fstab</code> for your filesystem, you -need only tell mount the device node or the mount location. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount /dev/cdrom</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount /home</code></strong> -</pre><p> -One final use for -<span class="application">mount</span> -is to tell you what filesystems are currently mounted and with what -options. Simply run -<span class="application">mount</span> -without any arguments to display these. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Network Filesystems"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id360747"></a>Network Filesystems</h2></div></div></div><p> -In addition to local filesystems, Slackware supports a number of network -filesystems as both client and server. This allows you to share data -between multiple computers transparently. We'll discuss the two most -common: NFS and SMB. -</p><div class="section" title="NFS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id360758"></a>NFS</h3></div></div></div><p> -NFS is the Network File System for Linux as well as several other common -operating systems. It has modest performance but supports the full range of -permissions for Slackware. In order to use NFS as either a client or a -server, you must run the remote procedure call daemon. This is easily -accomplished by setting the <code class="filename">/etc/rc.d/rc.rpc</code> file -executable and telling it to start. Once it has been set executable, it -will run automatically every time you boot into Slackware. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>chmod +x /etc/rc.d/rc.rpc</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>/etc/rc.d/rc.rpc start</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Mounting an NFS share is little different than mounting a local filesystem. -Rather than specifying a local device, you must tell mount the domain name -or IP address of the NFS server and the directory to mount with a colon -between them. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount -t nfs darkstar.example.com:/home /home</code></strong> -</pre><p> -Running an NFS server is a little bit different. First, you must configure -each directory to be exported in the <code class="filename">/etc/exports</code> -file. <code class="filename">exports</code>(5) contains information about what -directories will be shared, who they will be shared with, and what special -permissions to grant or deny. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# See exports(5) for a description. -# This file contains a list of all directories exported to other computers. -# It is used by rpc.nfsd and rpc.mountd. - -/home/backup 192.168.1.0/24(sync,rw,no_root_squash) -</pre><p> -The first column in -<code class="filename">exports</code> -is a list of the files to be exported via NFS. The second column is a list -of what systems may access the export along with special permissions. You -can specify hosts via domain name, IP address, or netblock address (as I -have here). Special permissions are always a parenthetical list. For a -complete list, you'll need to read the man page. For now, the only special -option that matters is [no_root_squash]. Usually the root user on -an NFS client cannot read or write an exported share. Instead, the root -user is "squashed" and forced to act as the nobody user. - [no_root_squash] prevents this. -</p><p> -You'll also need to run the NFS daemon. Starting and stopping NFS server -support is done with the <code class="filename">/etc/rc.d/rc.nfsd</code> rc script. -Set it executable and run it just like we did for -<code class="filename">rc.rpc</code> and you are ready to go. -</p></div><div class="section" title="SMB"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="id360899"></a>SMB</h3></div></div></div><p> -SMB is the Windows network file-sharing protocol. Connecting to SMB shares -(commonly called samba shares) is fairly straight forward. Unfortuantely, -SMB isn't as strongly supported as NFS. Still, it offers higher performance -and connectivity with Windows computers. For these reasons, SMB is the most -common network file-sharing protocol deployed on local networks. Exporting -SMB shares from Slackware is done through the samba daemon and configured -in <code class="filename">smb.conf</code>(5). Unfortunately configuring samba as a -service is beyond the scope of this book. Check online for additional -documentation, and as always refer to the man page. -</p><p> -Thankfully mounting an SMB share is easy and works almost exactly like -mounting an NFS share. You must tell mount where to find the server and -what share you wish to access in exactly the same way. Additionally, you -must specify a username and password. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount -t cifs //darkstar/home /home -o username=alan,password=secret</code></strong> -</pre><p> -You may be wondering why the filesystem type is cifs instead of smbfs. In -older versions of the Linux kernel, smbfs was used. This has been -deprecated in favor of the better performing and more secure general -purpose cifs driver. -</p><p> -All SMB shares require the [username] and [password] -arguments. This can create a security problem if you wish to place your -samba share in fstab. You may avoid this problem by using the - [credentials] argument. [credentials] points to a file -which contains the username and password information. As long as this file -is safely guarded and readable only by root, the likelyhood that your -authentication credentials will be compromised is lessened. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo "username=alan" > /etc/creds-home</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>echo "password=secret" >> /etc/creds-home</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>mount -t cifs //darkstar/home -o credentials=/etc/creds-home</code></strong> -</pre></div></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 11. vi"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id282063"></a>Chapter 11. <span class="application">vi</span></h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352102">What is <span class="application">vi</span>?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314220">The Different Modes of <span class="application">vi</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317601">Opening, Saving, and Quitting</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id320876">Moving Around</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id342976">Editing A Document</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id343009"><span class="application">vi</span> Cheat Sheet</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="What is vi?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id352102"></a>What is <span class="application">vi</span>?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Scattered all around your computer are thousands of text files. To a -new user, this may seem inconsequential, but almost everything in -Slackware Linux uses a plain-text file for configuration. This allows -users to make changes to the system quickly, easily, and intuitively. -In chapter 5, we looked at a few commands such as -<span class="application">cat</span> and <span class="application">less</span> that -can be used to read these files, but what if we want to make changes to -them? For that, we need a text editor, and -<span class="application">vi</span> is up to the task. -</p><p> -In short, <span class="application">vi</span> is one of the oldest and most -powerful text editors still used today. It's beloved by system -administrators, programmers, hobbiests, and others the world over. In -fact, nearly this entire book was written using -<span class="application">vi</span>; only the next chapter on -<span class="application">emacs</span> was written with that editor. -</p><p> -A little further explanation is needed to learn exactly what -<span class="application">vi</span> is today though, as Slackware Linux -technically doesn't include <span class="application">vi</span>. Rather, -Slackware includes two vi "clones", <span class="application">elvis</span>(1) -and <span class="application">vim</span>(1). These clones add many additional -features to vi such as syntax highlighting, binary editing modes, and -network support. We won't go too deeply into all these details. By -default, if you execute <span class="application">vi</span> on Slackware -Linux, you'll be using <span class="application">elvis</span>, so all -examples in this chapter will assume that is what you are using. If -you've used another Linux distribution before, you may be more familiar -with <span class="application">vim</span>. If so, you might wish to change -the symlink for <code class="filename">/usr/bin/vi</code> to point to -<code class="filename">/usr/bin/vim</code>, or add an alias to your shell's -startup scripts. <span class="application">vim</span> is generally considered -to be more feature-rich than <span class="application">elvis</span>, but -<span class="application">elvis</span> is a much smaller program and contains -more features than most users will ever need. -</p><p> -<span class="application">vi</span> is very powerful, but also somewhat -cumbersome and challening for a new user to learn. However, mastering -<span class="application">vi</span> is an important skill for any -self-respecting system administrator to learn, as -<span class="application">vi</span> is included on nearly every Linux -distribution, every BSD system, and every UNIX system in existance. -It's even included in Mac OS X. -Once you've learned <span class="application">vi</span>, you'll not have to -learn another text editor to work on any of these systems. In fact, -<span class="application">vi</span> clones have even been ported to Microsoft Windows -systems, so you can use it there too. -</p></div><div class="section" title="The Different Modes of vi"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id314220"></a>The Different Modes of <span class="application">vi</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -New users are often frustrated when using <span class="application">vi</span> -for the first time. When invoked without any arguments, -<span class="application">vi</span> will display a screen something like -this. -</p><pre class="screen"> -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ -~ - Command -</pre><p> -At this point, the user will being typing and expect the keys he -presses to appear in the document. Instead, something really strange -happens. The reason for this is simple. <span class="application">vi</span> -has different operation "modes". There is a command mode and an insert -mode. Command mode is the default; in this mode, each keystroke -performs a particular action such as moving the cursor around, deleting -text, yanking (copying) text, searching, etc. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Opening, Saving, and Quitting"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id317601"></a>Opening, Saving, and Quitting</h2></div></div></div><p> -Ok, so you've decided that you want to learn how to use -<span class="application">vi</span>. The first thing to do is learn how to -open and save files. Opening files is actually pretty easy. Simply type -the filename as an argument on the command-line and -<span class="application">vi</span> will happily load it for you. For -example, <strong class="userinput"><code>vi chapter_11.xml</code></strong> will open the file -<code class="filename">chapter_11.xml</code> and load its content onto the -screen, simple enough. But what if we've finished with one document and -wish to save it? We can do that in command mode using the [:w] -command. When in command mode, pressing the <span class="keycap"><strong>:</strong></span> key -temporarily positions the cursor on the very bottom line of the window -and allows you to enter special commands. (This is technically known as -ex-mode after the venerable <span class="application">ex</span> application -which we will not document here.) The command to save your current work -is [:w]. Once this is done, <span class="application">vi</span> will -write your changes to the buffer back into the file. If you wish to -open another document, simply use the [:e other_document] -command and <span class="application">vi</span> will happily open it for you. -If you've made changes to the buffer but haven't saved it yet, - [:e] will fail and print a warning message on the bottom line. -You can bypass this with the [:e!] command. Most ex-mode -commands in <span class="application">vi</span> can be "forced" by adding -<span class="keycap"><strong>!</strong></span> to them. This tells <span class="application">vi</span> -that you want to abandon any changes you've made to the buffer and open -the other document immediately. -</p><p> -But what if I don't like my changes and want to quit or start over? -That's easily done as well. Executing the [:e!] command -without any arguments will re-open the current document from the -beginning. Quitting <span class="application">vi</span> is as simple as -running the [:q] command if you haven't made any changes to -the buffer, or [:q!] if you'd like to quit and abandon those -changes. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Moving Around"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id320876"></a>Moving Around</h2></div></div></div><p> -Moving around in <span class="application">vi</span> is perhaps the hardest -thing for a new user to learn. <span class="application">vi</span> does not -traditionally use the directional arrow keys for cursor movement, -although in Slackware Linux that is an option. Rather, movement is -simply another command issued in command-mode. The reason for this is -rather simple. <span class="application">vi</span> actually predates the -inclusion of directional arrow keys on keyboards. Thus, -movement of the cursor had to be accomplished by using the few -keys available, so the right-hand "home row" keys of -<span class="keycap"><strong>h</strong></span>, <span class="keycap"><strong>j</strong></span>, <span class="keycap"><strong>k</strong></span>, and -<span class="keycap"><strong>l</strong></span> were chosen. These keys will move the cursor about -whenever <span class="application">vi</span> is in command mode. Here's a -short table to help you remember how they work. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id348996"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 11.1. vi cursor movement</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="vi cursor movement" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Command</th><th>Result</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h</td><td>Move the cursor one character left.</td></tr><tr><td>j</td><td>Move the cursor one line down</td></tr><tr><td>k</td><td>Move the cursor one line up</td></tr><tr><td>l</td><td>Move the cursor one character right</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"><p> -Moving around is a little more powerful than that though. Like many -command keys, these movement keys accept numerical arguments. For -example, <span class="keycap"><strong>10j</strong></span> will move the cursor down 10 lines. You -can also move to the end or beginning of the current line with -<span class="keycap"><strong>$</strong></span> and <span class="keycap"><strong>^</strong></span>, respectively. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Editing A Document"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id342976"></a>Editing A Document</h2></div></div></div><p> -Now that we're able to open and save documents, as well as move around -in them, it's time to learn how to edit them. The primary means of -editing is to enter insert mode using either the <span class="keycap"><strong>i</strong></span> or -<span class="keycap"><strong>a</strong></span> command keys. These either insert text at the -cursor's current location, or append it after the cursor's current -location. Once into insert mode, you can type any text normally and it -will be placed into your document. You can return to command mode in -order to save your changes by pressing the <span class="keycap"><strong>ESC</strong></span> key. -</p></div><div class="section" title="vi Cheat Sheet"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id343009"></a><span class="application">vi</span> Cheat Sheet</h2></div></div></div><p> -Since <span class="application">vi</span> can be difficult to learn, I've -prepared a short cheat sheat that should help you with the basics until -you begin to feel comfortable. -</p><div class="table"><a name="id343030"></a><p class="title"><b>Table 11.2. vi Cheat Sheet</b></p><div class="table-contents"><table summary="vi Cheat Sheet" border="1"><colgroup><col><col></colgroup><thead><tr><th>Command</th><th>Result</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h</td><td>Move the cursor one character left.</td></tr><tr><td>j</td><td>Move the cursor one line down</td></tr><tr><td>k</td><td>Move the cursor one line up</td></tr><tr><td>l</td><td>Move the cursor one character right</td></tr><tr><td>10j</td><td>Move the cursor ten lines down</td></tr><tr><td>G</td><td>Move to the end of the file</td></tr><tr><td>^</td><td>Move to the beginning of the line</td></tr><tr><td>$</td><td>Move to the end of the line</td></tr><tr><td>dd</td><td>Remove a line</td></tr><tr><td>5dd</td><td>Remove 5 lines</td></tr><tr><td>r</td><td>Replace a single character</td></tr><tr><td>R</td><td>Replace multiple characters</td></tr><tr><td>x</td><td>Delete a character</td></tr><tr><td>X</td><td>Delete the previous character</td></tr><tr><td>u</td><td>Undo the last action</td></tr><tr><td>:s'old'new'g</td><td>Replace all occurances of 'old' with 'new'</td></tr><tr><td>/asdf</td><td>Locate next occurance of asdf</td></tr><tr><td>:q</td><td>Quit (without saving)</td></tr><tr><td>:w</td><td>Save the current document</td></tr><tr><td>:w file</td><td>Save the current document as 'file'</td></tr><tr><td>:x</td><td>Save and quit</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><br class="table-break"></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 12. Emacs"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id342041"></a>Chapter 12. Emacs</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317667">No Idea</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="No Idea"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id317667"></a>No Idea</h2></div></div></div></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 13. Networking"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id289613"></a>Chapter 13. Networking</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id328201"><span class="application">netconfig</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id310624">Manual Configuration</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id319849">Automatic Configuration with rc.inet1.conf</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="netconfig"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id328201"></a><span class="application">netconfig</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Computers aren't very interesting on their own. Sure, you can install -games on them, but that just turns them into glorified entertainment -consoles. Today, computers need to be able to talk to one another; they -need to be networked. Whether you're installing a business network with -hundreds or thousands of computers or just setting up a single PC for -Internet access, Slackware is simple and easy. This chapter should -teach you how to setup typical wired networks. Common wireless setup will -be thoroughly discussed in the next section, but much of what you read -here will be applicable there as well. -</p><p> -There are many different ways to configure your computer to connect to -a network or the Internet, but they fall into two main categories: -static and dymanic. Static addresses are solid; they are set with the -understanding that they will not be changed, at least not anytime soon. -Dynamic addresses are fluid; the assumption is that the address will -change at some time in the future. Typically any sort of network server -requires a static address simply so other machines will know where to -contact it when they need services. Dynamic addresses tend to be used -for workstations, Internet clients, and any machine that doesn't -require a static address for any reason. Dynamic addresses are more -flexible, but present complications of their own. -</p><p> -There are many different kinds of network protocols that you might -encounter, but most people will only ever need to deal with Internet -Protocol (IP). For that reason, we'll focus exclusively on IP in this -book. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Manual Configuration"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id310624"></a>Manual Configuration</h2></div></div></div><p> -Ok, so you've installed Slackware, you've setup a desktop, but you -can't get it to connect to the Internet or your business's LAN (local -area network), what do you do? Fortunately, the answer to that question -is simple. Slackware includes a number of tools to configure your -network connection. The first we will look at today is the very -powerful <span class="application">ifconfig</span>(8). -<span class="application">ifconfig</span> is used to setup or modify the -configuration of a Network Interface Card (NIC or Ethernet Card), the -most common hardware for connecting to networks today. -<span class="application">ifconfig</span> is an incredibly powerful tool -capable of doing much more than setting IP addresses. For a complete -introduction, you should read its man page. For now, we're just going -to use it to display and change the network addresses of some ethernet -controllers. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ifconfig</code></strong> -lo Link encap:Local Loopback - inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0 - inet6 addr: ::1/128 Scope:Host - UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1 - RX packets:699 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:699 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:0 - RX bytes:39518 (38.5 KiB) TX bytes:39518 (38.5 KiB) - -wlan0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:1c:b3:ba:ad:4c - inet addr:192.168.1.198 Bcast:192.168.1.255 Mask:255.255.255.0 - inet6 addr: fe80::21c:b3ff:feba:ad4c/64 Scope:Link - UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:1630677 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:1183224 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:1627370207 (1.5 GiB) TX bytes:163308463 (155.7 MiB) - -wmaster0 Link encap:UNSPEC HWaddr 00-1C-B3-BA-AD-4C-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00 - UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:0 (0.0 B) TX bytes:0 (0.0 B) -</pre><p> -As you can clearly see here, when run without any arguments, -<span class="application">ifconfig</span> will display all the information it -has on all the ethernet cards (and wireless ethernet cards) present on -your system. The above represents a typical wireless connection from my -laptop, so don't be afraid if what you see on your system doesn't -match. If you don't see any ethX or wlanX interfaces though, the -interface may be down. To show all currently present NICs whether they are -"up" or "down", simply pass the [-a] argument. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ifconfig -a</code></strong> -eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:19:e3:45:90:44 - UP BROADCAST MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:122780 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:124347 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:60495452 (57.6 MiB) TX bytes:17185220 (16.3 MiB) - Interrupt:16 - -lo Link encap:Local Loopback - inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0 - inet6 addr: ::1/128 Scope:Host - UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1 - RX packets:699 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:699 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:0 - RX bytes:39518 (38.5 KiB) TX bytes:39518 (38.5 KiB) - -wlan0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:1c:b3:ba:ad:4c - inet addr:192.168.1.198 Bcast:192.168.1.255 Mask:255.255.255.0 - inet6 addr: fe80::21c:b3ff:feba:ad4c/64 Scope:Link - UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:1630677 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:1183224 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:1627370207 (1.5 GiB) TX bytes:163308463 (155.7 MiB) - -wmaster0 Link encap:UNSPEC HWaddr 00-1C-B3-BA-AD-4C-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00 - UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:0 (0.0 B) TX bytes:0 (0.0 B) -</pre><p>Notice that the eth0 interface is now listed among the returns. -<span class="application">ifconfig</span> can also change the current -settings on a NIC. Typically, you would need to change the IP address -and subnet mask, but you can change virtually any parameters. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>ifconfig eth0</code></strong> -eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:19:e3:45:90:44 - inet addr:192.168.1.1 Bcast:192.168.1.255 Mask:255.255.255.0 - UP BROADCAST MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 - RX packets:122780 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 - TX packets:124347 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 - collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 - RX bytes:60495452 (57.6 MiB) TX bytes:17185220 (16.3 MiB) - Interrupt:16 -</pre><p> -If you look carefully, you'll notice that the interface now has the -192.168.1.1 IP address and a 255.255.255.0 subnet mask. We've now setup -the basics for connecting to our network, but we still need to setup a -default gateway and our DNS servers. In order to do that, we'll need to -look at a few more tools. -</p><p> -Next on our stop through networking land is the equally powerful -<span class="application">route</span>(8). This tool is responsible for -modifying the Linux kernel's routing table which affects all data -transmission on a network. Routing tables can become immensely complex -or they can be straight-forward and simple. Most users will only ever -need to setup a default gateway, so we'll show you how to do that here. -If for some reason you need a more complex routing table, you would be -well advised to read the entire man page for -<span class="application">route</span> as well as consulting other sources. -For now, let's take a look at our routing table immediately after -setting up eth0. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>route</code></strong> -Kernel IP routing table -Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface -192.168.1.0 * 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 eth0 -loopback * 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 lo -</pre><p> -I won't explain everything here, but the general information should be -easy to pick up if you're familiar with networking at all. The -Destination and Genmask fields specify a range of IP addresses to -match. If a Gateway is defined, information in the form of packets will -be sent to that host for forwarding. We also specify an interface in -the final field that the information should traverse. Right now, we can -only communicate with computers with addresses between 192.168.1.0 and -192.168.1.255 and ourselves through the loopback interface, a type of -virtual NIC that is used for routing information from this computer to -itself. In order to reach the rest of the world, we'll need to -setup a default gateway. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>route add default gw 192.168.1.254</code></strong> -<code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>route</code></strong> -Kernel IP routing table -Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface -192.168.1.0 * 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 eth0 -loopback * 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 lo -default 192.168.1.254 0.0.0.0 UG 0 0 0 eth0 -</pre><p> -You should immediately notice the addition of a default route. This -specifies what router should be used to reach any addresses that aren't -specified elsewhere in our routing table. Now, when we try to connect -to say, 64.57.102.34, the information will be sent to 192.168.1.254 -which is responsible for delivering the data for us. Unfortunately, -we're still not quite through. We need some way of converting domain -names like slackware.com into IP addresses that the computer can use. -For that, we need to make use of a DNS server. -</p><p> -Fortunately, setting up your computer to use an external (or even an -internal) DNS server is very easy. You'll need to use your favorite -text editor and open the <code class="filename">/etc/resolv.conf</code> file. -Don't ask me what happened to the <span class="keycap"><strong>e</strong></span>. On my computer, -<code class="filename">resolv.conf</code> looks like this. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# /etc/resolv.conf -search lizella.net -nameserver 192.168.1.254 -</pre><p> -Most users won't need the "search" line. This is used to map hostnames -to domain names. Basically, if I attempt to connect to "barnowl", the -computer knows to look for "barnowl.lizella.net" thanks to this search -line. We're mainly interested in the "nameserver" line. This tells -Slackware what domain name servers (DNS) to connect to. Generally -speaking, these should always be specified by IP address. If you know -what DNS servers you should use, you can just add them one at a time to -individual nameserver lines. In fact, I don't know of any practical -limit to the number of nameservers that can be specified in -<code class="filename">resolv.conf</code>, so add as many as you like. Once this -is done, you should be able to communicate with other hosts via their -fully qualified domain name. -</p><p> -But Alan! That's a lot of hard work! I don't want to do this time and -again for dozens or even hundreds of machines. You're absolutely right, -and that's why smarter people than you and me created DHCP. DHCP -stands for Dynamic Host Control Protocol and is a method for -automatically configuring computers with unique IP addresses, netmasks, -gateways, and DNS servers. Most of the time, you'll want to use DHCP. -The majority of wireless routers, DSL or cable modems, even firewalls -all have DHCP servers to can make your life much easier. Slackware -includes two main tools for connecting to an exising DHCP server and -can even act as a DHCP server for other computers. For now though, -we're just going to look at DHCP clients. -</p><p> -First on our list is <span class="application">dhcpcd</span>(8), part of the -ISC DHCP utilities. Assuming your computer is physically connected to -your network, and that you have an operating DHCP server on that -network, you can configure your NIC in one shot. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>dhcpcd eth0</code></strong> -</pre><p> -If everything went according to plan, your NIC should be properly -configured, and you should be able to communicate with other computers -on your network, and with the Internet at large. If for some reason, -<span class="application">dhcpcd</span> fails, you may want to try -<span class="application">dhclient</span>(8). -<span class="application">dhclient</span> is an alternative to -<span class="application">dhcpcd</span> and works in basically the same way. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>dhclient eth0</code></strong> -Listening on LPF/eth0/00:1c:b3:ba:ad:4c -Sending on LPF/eth0/00:1c:b3:ba:ad:4c -Sending on Socket/fallback -DHCPREQUEST on eth0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 -DHCPACK from 192.168.1.254 -bound to 192.168.1.198 -- renewal in 8547 seconds. -</pre><p> -So why does Slackware include two DHCP clients? Sometimes a particular -DHCP server may be broken and not respond well to either -<span class="application">dhcpcd</span> or -<span class="application">dhclient</span>. In those cases, you can fall back -to the other DHCP client in hopes of getting a valid response from the -server. Traditionally, Slackware uses -<span class="application">dhcpcd</span>, and this works in the vast majority -of cases, but it may become necessary at some point for you to use -<span class="application">dhclient</span> instead. Both are excellent DHCP -clients, so use whichever you prefer. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Automatic Configuration with rc.inet1.conf"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id319849"></a>Automatic Configuration with rc.inet1.conf</h2></div></div></div><p> -Manually configuring interfaces is an important skill to have, but it -can become tedious. No one wants to manually setup their Internet -connection every time the system boots. More importantly, you may not -always have physical access to the machine when it boots. Slackware -makes it easy to automatically configure ethernet (and wireless) cards -at system startup with <code class="filename">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf</code>. -For now, we're going to focus on traditional wired ethernet networking; -the next chapter will discuss various wireless options. -</p><p> -<code class="filename">rc.inet1.conf</code> is an incredibly powerful -configuration file, capable of configuring most of your network cards -automatically when Slackware is started. The file is filled with useful -comments, but there is also a man page that more thoroughly discusses -its use. To begin, we're going to look at some of the options used on -one of my personal machines. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# Config information for eth0: -IPADDR[0]="192.168.1.250" -NETMASK[0]="255.255.255.0" -USE_DHCP[0]="" -DHCP_HOSTNAME[0]="" -# Some lines ommitted. -GATEWAY="192.168.1.254" -</pre><p> -This represents most of the information necessary to configure a static -IP address on a single ethernet controller. -<span class="application">netconfig</span> will usually fill in these values -for a single ethernet device for you. If you have multiple network -cards in your machine and need all of them activated automatically at -boot time, then you'll need to edit or add additional entries into this -file in the same manner as above. First, let me go over some of the -basics. -</p><p> -As you may have already guessed, IPADDR[n] is the Internet Protocol -Address for the "n" network interface card. Typically, "n" corrosponds -to eth0, eth1, and so on, but this isn't always the case. You can -specify these values to pertain to a different network controller with -the INFAME[n] variable, but we will reserve that for the next chapter -on wireless networking, as it more commonly pertains to wireless -network controllers. Likewise, NETMASK[n] is the subnet mask to use -for the network controller. If these lines are left empty, then static -IP addresses will not be automatically assigned to this network -controller. The USE_DHCP[n] variable tells Slackware to (naturally) -use DHCP to configure the interface. DHCP_HOSTNAME[n] is rarely used, -but some DHCP servers may require it. In that case, it must be set to -a valid hostname. Finally, we come to the GATEWAY variable. It is -actually set lower in the file than it appears in my example, and it -controls the default gateway to use. You may be wondering why there is -no GATEWAY[n] variable. The answer to that lies in how Internet -Protocol works. I won't go into an indepth discussion on that subject, -but suffice it to say that there is only ever one default route that a -computer can use no matter how many interfaces are attached to it. -</p><p> -If you need to use static IP addressing, you will have to obtain a -unique static IP address and the subnet mask for the interface, as well -as the default gateway address, and enter those here. There is no place -to enter DNS information in <code class="filename">rc.inet1.conf</code>, so DNS -servers will have to be manually placed into -<code class="filename">resolv.conf</code> as we discussed above. Of course, if -you use <span class="application">netconfig</span>, this will be handled for -you by that program. Now let's take a look at another interface on my -computer. -</p><pre class="screen"> -# Config information for eth1: -IPADDR[1]="" -NETMASK[1]="" -USE_DHCP[1]="yes" -DHCP_HOSTNAME[1]="" -</pre><p> -Here I am telling Slackware to configure eth1 using DHCP. I do not need -to set the IPADDR[1] or NETMASK[1] variables when using DHCP (in fact, -if they are set, they will be ignored). Slackware will happily contact -a DHCP server as soon as the machine begins to boot. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 14. Wireless Networking"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id329344"></a>Chapter 14. Wireless Networking</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id326142"><span class="application">iwconfig</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id359178">Wired Equivilant Protection (or Lack Thereof)</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id334833">WPA</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id334290">rc.inet1.conf revisited</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="iwconfig"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id326142"></a><span class="application">iwconfig</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Wireless networking is somewhat more complicated than traditional wired -networking, and requires additional tools for setup. Slackware includes -a diverse collection of wireless networking tools to allow you to -configure your wireless network interface card (WNIC) at the most basic -level. We won't cover everything here, but should give you a solid -foundation to get up and running quickly. The first tool we are going -to look at is <span class="application">iwconfig</span>(8). When run without -any argument, <span class="application">iwconfig</span> displays the current -wireless information on any and all NICs on your computer. -</p><pre class="screen"><code class="prompt">darkstar:~# </code><strong class="userinput"><code>iwconfig</code></strong> -lo no wireless extensions. - -eth0 no wireless extensions. - -wmaster0 no wireless extensions. - -wlan0 IEEE 802.11abgn ESSID:"nest" - Mode:Managed Frequency:2.432 GHz Access Point: -00:13:10:EA:4E:BD - Bit Rate=54 Mb/s Tx-Power=17 dBm - Retry min limit:7 RTS thr:off Fragment thr=2352 B - Encryption key:off - Power Management:off - Link Quality=100/100 Signal level:-42 dBm - Rx invalid nwid:0 Rx invalid crypt:0 Rx invalid frag:0 - Tx excessive retries:0 Invalid misc:0 Missed beacon:0 - -tun0 no wireless extensions. -</pre><p> -Unlike wired networks, wireless networks are "fuzzy". Their borders are -hard to define, and multiple networks may overlap one another. In order -to avoid confusion, each wireless network has (hopefully) unique -identifiers. The two most basic identifiers are the Extended Service -Set Identifier (ESSID) and the channel or frequency for radio -transmission. The ESSID is simply a name that identifies the wireless -network in question; you may have heard it referred to as the network -name or something similar. Typical wireless networks operate on 11 -different frequencies. In order to connect to even the most basic -wireless network, you will have to setup these two pieces of -information, and possibly others, before setting up things like the -WNIC's IP address. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Wired Equivilant Protection (or Lack Thereof)"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id359178"></a>Wired Equivilant Protection (or Lack Thereof)</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="WPA"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id334833"></a>WPA</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="rc.inet1.conf revisited"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id334290"></a>rc.inet1.conf revisited</h2></div></div></div></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 15. Basic Networking Commands"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id284408"></a>Chapter 15. Basic Networking Commands</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id348624">Network Diagnostic Tools</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id333340">Web Browsers</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id351638">FTP Clients</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id317884">NNTP Clients</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341101">Remote Access</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="Network Diagnostic Tools"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id348624"></a>Network Diagnostic Tools</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Web Browsers"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id333340"></a>Web Browsers</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="FTP Clients"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id351638"></a>FTP Clients</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="NNTP Clients"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id317884"></a>NNTP Clients</h2></div></div></div></div><div class="section" title="Remote Access"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id341101"></a>Remote Access</h2></div></div></div></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 16. Package Management"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id320396"></a>Chapter 16. Package Management</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id358328"><span class="application">pkgtool</span></a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id352958">Installing, Removing, and Upgrading Packages</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id341343"><span class="application">pkgtool</span></a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="pkgtool"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id358328"></a><span class="application">pkgtool</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Installing, Removing, and Upgrading Packages"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id352958"></a>Installing, Removing, and Upgrading Packages</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="pkgtool"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id341343"></a><span class="application">pkgtool</span></h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 17. Keeping Track of Updates"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id292742"></a>Chapter 17. Keeping Track of Updates</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id314047">The -stable Branch</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id324804">Upgrading Slackware Versions</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="The -stable Branch"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id314047"></a>The -stable Branch</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Upgrading Slackware Versions"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id324804"></a>Upgrading Slackware Versions</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 18. The Linux Kernel"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="id328461"></a>Chapter 18. The Linux Kernel</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id322300">What Does the Kernel Do?</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id325022">Working with Modules</a></span></dt><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id353213">Compiling A Kernel and Why to do So</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="section" title="What Does the Kernel Do?"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id322300"></a>What Does the Kernel Do?</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Working with Modules"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id325022"></a>Working with Modules</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div><div class="section" title="Compiling A Kernel and Why to do So"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="id353213"></a>Compiling A Kernel and Why to do So</h2></div></div></div><p> -Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do -eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad -minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip -ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in -voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. -</p></div></div></div></body></html> |